Ecuador is a global powerhouse when it comes to high-quality cocoa,
particularly the prized Arriba Nacional variety.
Though the country produces less than 10% of the world’s cocoa, it accounts
for over 70% of the finest flavor beans globally. These beans are celebrated
for their complex taste profiles—nutty, fruity, floral, and even hints of
jasmine and orange—which attract elite chocolatiers from around the world. The
name “Arriba” comes from a Swedish explorer who, enchanted by the aroma while
traveling along the Guayas River, asked locals where it came from. Their
reply, “de río arriba” (upstream), gave the bean its name.
Cocoa cultivation in Ecuador is deeply rooted in history, with archaeological
evidence suggesting domestication and consumption dating back over 5,000 years
in the Amazon region. Today, major cocoa-producing provinces include Guayas,
Manabí, and Los Ríos, where farmers are increasingly adopting sustainable
practices to enhance yield and bean quality. However, climate
variability—especially irregular rainfall and rising temperatures—poses
challenges to consistent production. Despite these hurdles, Ecuador remains
committed to expanding its cocoa exports, with key markets in the U.S.,
Netherlands, and Germany, and growing interest from Asia.
In recent decades, the rise of genetically modified CCN-51 beans has sparked
debate. These hybrids are more disease-resistant and yield higher quantities,
but they lack the nuanced flavors of the traditional Nacional beans. As a
result, many small farmers now cultivate a mix of both, leading to a dilution
in overall flavor quality. Yet, Ecuador is not just a raw bean exporter
anymore—it’s emerging as a chocolate-producing nation, with artisanal brands
like To’ak gaining international acclaim for their bean-to-bar craftsmanship.
This evolution signals a new chapter for Ecuadorian cocoa, blending ancient
heritage with modern innovation.
|
Cocoa in Ecuador Hall
«Origin, Domestication and Social Use of Cocoa - The history of cacao in
Ecuador dates back 5,500 years, proving its ancient use in ritual and
religious contexts among ancestral communities. Since the 17th century,
cacao-related agricultural activity has been part of the social and
economic transformations in Ecuador. Learning about the history of the
origins of cacao's domestication and social use in Ecuador means delving
into a living legacy, preserved in our ethnographic, archaeological, and
documentary heritage.»
-
Ecuador holds a remarkable place in the history of cocoa, with
evidence suggesting it may be the true cradle of cacao domestication.
For decades, scholars believed cacao originated in Mesoamerica, but
recent archaeological discoveries in the village of Santa Ana-La
Florida in the Ecuadorian Amazon have rewritten that narrative. Traces
of theobromine—a compound unique to cacao—were found in 5,500-year-old
pottery, predating any known use in Central America. These findings
link cacao cultivation to the Mayo-Chinchipe culture, indicating that
indigenous peoples in Ecuador were the first to harvest, process, and
consume cacao long before it reached the Maya and Aztec civilizations.
-
The domestication of cacao in Ecuador was not just a botanical
milestone but a cultural one. Genetic studies show that the region’s
cacao trees, particularly the ancient Curaray variety, possess the
greatest genetic diversity, a hallmark of early domestication. Through
selective breeding, early cultivators enhanced flavor and theobromine
content, laying the foundation for the prized Criollo variety. The
spread of cacao from the Amazon to the Pacific coast and eventually
northward into Central America likely occurred through trade and
migration, supported by similarities in ceramics and evidence of
maritime exchange routes. This movement helped cacao evolve into a
crop of ritual and economic significance across the Americas.
-
Socially, cacao played a central role in Ecuadorian pre-Columbian
societies. It was used in ceremonial contexts, as evidenced by its
presence in burial sites and ritual vessels. Theobromine-rich drinks
were likely consumed during feasts and spiritual gatherings, echoing
practices later seen among the Maya and Aztecs. Even today, Ecuador’s
cacao—especially the fine aroma Nacional variety—is celebrated
globally for its quality and heritage. The country’s deep-rooted
relationship with cacao continues to shape its identity, economy, and
culinary traditions, making it not just a producer but a steward of
one of the world’s most beloved plants.
|
|
The Amazon
«The Amazon - Considered the world's largest tropical rainforest, it
covers 40% of South America and is home to 20% of the planet's
freshwater and flora, with plant and animal species still being
discovered. Its dense vegetation and river networks are vital to global
climate balance and the livelihoods of indigenous communities, who have
lived in harmony with nature for centuries.»
«Upper Amazon - A region that connects the high Andean lands with the
lowlands of the Amazon basin, where the tributaries of the Amazon River
originate. The unique characteristics of this area favored the presence
of cacao in its natural state. Multidisciplinary scientific research,
initiated in 2002 in Santa Ana-La Florida, Palanda, and Zamora
Chinchipe, positions the territory of present-day Ecuador as the place
of origin and domestication of cacao.»
-
The Amazon is the largest tropical rainforest on Earth, stretching
across nine countries and covering approximately 40% of South America.
It is a biological powerhouse, harboring an estimated 390 billion
individual trees and more than 16,000 species, many of which remain
undocumented. This vast ecosystem is also home to 20% of the planet’s
freshwater, coursing through a labyrinth of rivers that sustain not
only the forest’s flora and fauna but also millions of people. Its
dense canopy and rich biodiversity play a critical role in regulating
global climate patterns, acting as a massive carbon sink and
influencing rainfall across continents.
-
Beyond its ecological significance, the Amazon is a cultural mosaic,
inhabited by over 350 indigenous groups, many of whom have lived in
harmony with the forest for millennia. These communities possess deep
knowledge of the land, using sustainable practices to cultivate, hunt,
and heal. Their traditions and cosmologies are intimately tied to the
rhythms of the forest, making the Amazon not just a natural wonder but
a living archive of human resilience and adaptation. However,
deforestation, mining, and industrial agriculture pose growing threats
to this delicate balance, endangering both biodiversity and cultural
heritage.
-
The Upper Amazon, where the Andes descend into the basin, is a
particularly fertile and diverse region. This transitional zone is
where the tributaries of the Amazon River originate, and it’s here
that the story of cacao begins. Scientific research conducted in Santa
Ana-La Florida, Palanda, and Zamora Chinchipe since 2002 has revealed
that this part of Ecuador may be the birthplace of cacao
domestication. The unique climate, soil, and biodiversity of the Upper
Amazon created ideal conditions for cacao to thrive in its wild state,
making it a cradle of agricultural innovation long before the crop
spread to Mesoamerica.
-
For Ecuadorian cocoa, the Amazon is both origin and lifeline. The
region’s genetic richness has given rise to some of the world’s finest
cacao varieties, including the prized Nacional type known for its
floral and fruity notes. Indigenous communities in the Ecuadorian
Amazon continue to cultivate cacao using agroforestry systems that
preserve native vegetation and promote biodiversity. These sustainable
practices not only protect the rainforest but also empower local
economies, turning cocoa into a symbol of ecological stewardship and
cultural continuity.
|
|
New findings on cacao domestication
«Starch granules from Theobroma Cacao were found in samples taken from
ceramic vessels used as funerary offerings in the Poalanda region of
Ecuador 5,500 years ago and demonstrate the domestication of cacao in
Ecuadorian territory more than a thousand years before the Almada site
in Mexico (Valdez, 2021). Furthermore, thanks to the discovery of starch
from the so-called national cacao and other varieties in objects from
the Valdivia culture (3500 BC), located on the present-day Ecuadorian
coast, exchange routes have been identified. The research was led by
French-Ecuadorean archaeologist Francisco Valdez, with support from the
French Research Institute (IRD) and the National Institute of Cultural
Heritage of Ecuador (INPC).»
-
Recent archaeological discoveries have reshaped our understanding of
cacao domestication, placing Ecuador at the heart of its origin story.
In the Poalanda region, researchers uncovered starch granules from
Theobroma cacao embedded in ceramic vessels used as funerary
offerings, dating back approximately 5,500 years. This evidence
suggests that cacao was being cultivated and ritualized in Ecuador
more than a millennium before similar findings at the Almada site in
Mexico, challenging long-held assumptions about Mesoamerican primacy
in cacao history. The presence of cacao in such early ceremonial
contexts also points to its cultural and spiritual significance among
ancient Ecuadorian societies.
-
Further discoveries along Ecuador’s coast, particularly in artifacts
from the Valdivia culture (circa 3500 BC), have revealed starch
residues from both Nacional cacao and other genetic varieties. These
findings not only confirm the early domestication of cacao but also
suggest the existence of sophisticated exchange networks between
coastal and Amazonian communities. The movement of cacao genotypes
across regions implies that ancient peoples were actively selecting
and sharing plant varieties, contributing to the genetic diversity
that characterizes modern cacao. This interregional connectivity
underscores the role of cacao as both a commodity and a cultural
bridge.
-
The research, spearheaded by French-Ecuadorian archaeologist Francisco
Valdez, was supported by the French Research Institute for Development
(IRD) and Ecuador’s National Institute of Cultural Heritage (INPC).
Their multidisciplinary approach combined archaeobotany, genetics, and
cultural analysis to trace cacao’s domestication and diffusion. These
findings not only elevate Ecuador’s status in the global narrative of
cacao but also provide crucial insights into how ancient agricultural
practices shaped biodiversity. As cacao faces modern threats from
disease and climate change, understanding its deep genetic roots could
be key to preserving and improving this cherished crop.
|
|
Symbolism and rituals of cacao
«According to Francisco Valdez's interpretations, the symbolic message
of cacao is reinforced by the duality of the representation of the
individual unfolding, symmetrically opposite, at each end of the bowl, a
ritual practiced within the shamanic world. The dialogue between the
content and its container is evident, as it informs the nature of the
underlying concept of both representations, while also alluding to the
status and likely belonging of the ancient user of the shamanic world
(Valdez, 2019).»
-
Cacao has long held a sacred place in the spiritual and ceremonial
life of ancient cultures, particularly in the Americas. According to
Francisco Valdez’s interpretations, cacao was not merely a consumable
but a symbolic medium that bridged the physical and metaphysical
realms. In shamanic rituals, the presentation of cacao in ceremonial
vessels often featured symmetrical depictions of individuals unfolding
at either end of the bowl. This duality—mirroring and balance—evoked
the shamanic worldview, where transformation, reflection, and
spiritual dialogue were central themes. The ritual use of cacao thus
became a visual and experiential metaphor for inner awakening and
cosmic harmony.
-
Valdez emphasizes the profound relationship between the cacao itself
and the vessel that contained it. The dialogue between content and
container was not incidental; it revealed the conceptual depth of the
ritual. The bowl’s iconography, paired with the sacred substance it
held, conveyed messages about the user’s spiritual status and their
role within the shamanic tradition. These vessels were likely reserved
for individuals of high ritual standing—shamans or spiritual
leaders—whose interactions with cacao were part of a broader
cosmological practice. The cacao drink, rich in theobromine and other
psychoactive compounds, may have facilitated altered states of
consciousness, enhancing the ritual’s transformative power.
-
Beyond its symbolic imagery, cacao rituals were deeply embedded in the
social and spiritual fabric of pre-Hispanic cultures. The act of
preparing and consuming cacao was often accompanied by chants,
offerings, and meditative silence, reinforcing its role as a conduit
to the divine. Whether used in funerary rites, healing ceremonies, or
seasonal celebrations, cacao served as a sacred connector—between
people, between realms, and between the self and the cosmos. Valdez’s
insights illuminate how this revered plant was not just cultivated but
consecrated, embodying a worldview where nature, art, and spirit were
inseparably intertwined.
|
|
The Aénts Chicham and the Shuar
«The Aénts Chicham - The term "aénts chicham" refers to the Achuar,
Shuar, Huambisa, and Aguaruna (or Awajún) communities who possess
ancient knowledge and live in the Amazonian forests. They are the heirs
of the settlers who domesticated cacao, who were known since colonial
times as Bracamoros and Yahuarsongos.»
«The Shuar - “Shuar” is the name by which they are known and is accepted
by the nationality and means “man” or “being human.” According to
archaeological data, this group has inhabited the territories where
evidence of cacao domestication was found for about 1,000 years. Some
authors maintain that both the Shuar and the Achuar formed a single
human group; however, due to internal disagreements, the Achuar settled
in the lowland areas.»
-
The term Aénts Chicham encompasses a linguistic and cultural
family of Indigenous peoples in the Amazon basin, including the
Achuar, Shuar, Huambisa, and Aguaruna (also known as Awajún). These
communities are deeply rooted in the tropical forests of Ecuador and
northern Peru, where they have preserved ancestral knowledge and
practices for centuries. Historically, they are considered descendants
of the Bracamoros and Yahuarsongos—groups recognized during colonial
times for their advanced agricultural practices, including the
domestication of cacao. This legacy positions the Aénts Chicham not
only as stewards of biodiversity but also as cultural heirs to one of
the world’s most cherished plants.
-
Among these groups, the Shuar stand out for their strong
cultural identity and historical resilience. The name “Shuar”
translates to “man” or “being human,” reflecting a deep philosophical
connection to existence and personhood. Archaeological evidence
suggests that the Shuar have inhabited regions rich in cacao
biodiversity for at least a millennium, particularly in the provinces
of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe. Their territory overlaps with
areas where wild cacao varieties were first cultivated, reinforcing
their role in the early domestication of the plant. The Shuar’s
intimate relationship with the forest and its resources is reflected
in their spiritual practices, traditional medicine, and subsistence
farming.
-
The Achuar, closely related to the Shuar, share linguistic and
cultural traits but diverged historically due to internal
disagreements. While the Shuar remained in the highland and midland
forest zones, the Achuar migrated to the lowland areas east of the
Pastaza and Morona rivers. Despite this geographical separation, both
groups maintain strong ties through shared rituals, oral traditions,
and ecological knowledge. Their societies are organized around
extended families living in dispersed forest settlements, with a deep
emphasis on harmony with nature and spiritual balance. The Achuar,
like the Shuar, continue to practice shamanism and uphold traditions
that reflect their cosmological views.
-
Together, the Aénts Chicham peoples represent a living archive of
Amazonian heritage. Their languages, collectively known as Chicham,
form a unique linguistic family that encodes centuries of
environmental wisdom and cultural memory. As guardians of the forest
and its sacred plants—including cacao—they embody a worldview where
nature is not merely a resource but a relative. Their contributions to
the domestication of cacao and their resistance to colonial
subjugation underscore their enduring significance in the history of
the Americas. Today, their voices continue to shape conversations
around conservation, Indigenous rights, and the cultural value of
biodiversity.
|
|
Cocoa and spondylus shell
«The anthropomorphic effigy bottle, which evidenced the use of cocoa as
a beverage, is especially valuable for its sacred iconography, which
alludes to the interaction between the inhabitants of the coast and the
Amazon: the forces of the sea (Spondylus) and the jungle
(jaguar-serpent-hawk). The shared content of the funerary rite becomes
socially sacred (Valdez, 2019).»
|
|
Social use of cacao
«Archaeological evidence suggests that cacao was used in gastronomy,
medicine, and religion, among other forms of culture, demonstrating the
social dimension of its use, permeated by symbolic, nutritional, and
practical values. Currently, groups in different areas of Ecuador
cultivate cacao in an artisanal and organic manner, using cultivation
systems such as chakra or multi-crop farming to improve production. It
is worth noting that monoculture agroindustrial production is present on
the Ecuadorian coast and in the Amazon.»
-
Cacao has long held a multifaceted role in the social fabric of
ancient and modern Ecuadorian cultures. Archaeological evidence from
sites like Santa Ana-La Florida and Valdivia reveals that cacao was
not only consumed but revered, used in gastronomy, medicine, and
religious rituals. Its presence in funerary offerings and ceremonial
vessels suggests that cacao was a symbol of vitality and spiritual
connection. Theobromine-rich drinks may have been used to stimulate
the body and mind during shamanic rites, while its medicinal
properties were likely harnessed to treat ailments and promote
well-being. This blend of symbolic, nutritional, and practical values
underscores cacao’s deep integration into everyday life and sacred
tradition.
-
Today, cacao continues to be cultivated with reverence by Indigenous
and rural communities across Ecuador. Many of these groups employ
traditional systems such as chakra—a form of agroforestry that
mimics natural forest ecosystems—and multi-crop farming, which
enhances biodiversity and soil health. These artisanal and organic
methods not only preserve ancestral knowledge but also produce
high-quality cacao prized for its flavor and aroma. The cultivation
process itself is often a communal activity, reinforcing social bonds
and intergenerational learning. In these contexts, cacao remains more
than a commodity; it is a cultural legacy and a source of identity.
-
However, the rise of monoculture agroindustrial production,
particularly on the Ecuadorian coast and in parts of the Amazon,
presents a contrasting model. These large-scale operations prioritize
yield and export value, often at the expense of ecological balance and
social cohesion. While they contribute significantly to Ecuador’s
economy, they also raise concerns about deforestation, soil
degradation, and the marginalization of smallholder farmers. The
coexistence of traditional and industrial systems reflects broader
tensions between sustainability and globalization, making the social
use of cacao a dynamic and evolving narrative in Ecuador’s
agricultural landscape.
|
|
Inspiration in a coke-chewing jaguar and llipta holder
|
|
Inspiration in a Mayo Chinchipe stirrup-handled vessel
|
|
Inspiration in a stirrup-handled vessel for corn chicha
|
|
Cocoa in the Royal Audience of Quito and Cacao as part of the
“equinoctial plants” in the 19th century
«Cocoa in the Royal Audience of Quito - During the time of the Royal
Audience of Quito (1563-1822), despite the restrictions of the Spanish
Crown, cocoa was cultivated, and its trade on the Ecuadorian coast was
boosted by the textile crisis of 1740. From the port of Guayaquil, cocoa
began to be exported, and its greatest boom was recorded during the
second half of the 19th century until the second decade of the 20th
century. One of the first chronicles of this fruit is found in The
History of the New World (1572) by Girolamo Benzonl. The author
describes in detail the cob, the almonds, and the ripening process of
cocoa, which he calls "cacauate," a term that would later evolve to
"cacao."»
«Cacao as part of the “equinoctial plants” in the 19th century - At the
beginning of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland
traveled throughout the Americas for five years, compiling a remarkable
collection of plants, some from the territory of the Royal Audience of
Quito, to take back to Europe for scientific purposes. In Plantae
Aequinoctiales vol. 1, they described for the first time more than 20
new species with scientific illustrations, including engravings of
Theobroma cacao L. The complete work, published in Paris between 1808
and 1817, spans 17 volumes with botanical descriptions from different
locations around the world.»
-
During the colonial period of the Royal Audience of Quito (1563–1822),
cocoa emerged as a valuable crop despite the regulatory constraints
imposed by the Spanish Crown. The textile crisis of 1740 catalyzed a
shift in economic priorities, leading to a surge in cocoa cultivation
along the Ecuadorian coast. Guayaquil, a strategic port city, became
the epicenter of cocoa exports, laying the groundwork for what would
become a booming trade in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Early European accounts, such as Girolamo Benzoni’s
The History of the New World (1572), offer vivid descriptions
of the fruit—its pods, seeds, and ripening process—using the term
“cacauate,” a linguistic precursor to the modern “cacao.” These
chronicles reflect the growing European fascination with tropical
commodities and their potential for economic and cultural exchange.
-
By the dawn of the 19th century, cacao had transcended its role as a
colonial export and entered the realm of scientific inquiry, thanks to
the pioneering expedition of Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland.
Their five-year journey across the Americas yielded an extraordinary
botanical archive, including specimens from the lands of the former
Royal Audience of Quito. In Plantae Aequinoctiales, a
monumental work published between 1808 and 1817, they cataloged over
20 new plant species, among them Theobroma cacao L.. The
inclusion of cacao in this compendium of “equinoctial plants”—species
native to equatorial regions—underscored its ecological and economic
significance. Detailed engravings and scientific descriptions elevated
cacao from a colonial crop to a subject of global botanical interest.
-
This dual legacy—cacao as both a commercial asset and a scientific
marvel—illustrates its enduring importance in Ecuadorian history.
While colonial trade networks laid the foundation for its economic
prominence, the intellectual curiosity of European naturalists helped
cement its place in the global imagination. The convergence of
commerce and science around cacao reflects broader patterns of
cultural exchange and exploitation during the colonial and
post-colonial eras. Today, these historical threads continue to shape
how cacao is cultivated, studied, and valued, both within Ecuador and
beyond.
|
See Also
Source
Location
Pumapungo Museum - Archaeological Park
Pumapungo Museum - INTI Presidential Hall
Pumapungo Museum - Kañaris: Identity and Persistence Hall
Pumapungo Museum - National Ethnography Hall
Pumapungo Museum - The Shuar: Man - Nature Hall
Pumapungo Museum - Spiritualities and Ritualities Hall