Jokhang Temple, nestled in the heart of Lhasa, is considered the most sacred
and spiritually resonant site in Tibetan Buddhism.
Founded in the 7th century by King Songtsen Gampo, it was built to enshrine
the revered statue of Jowo Shakyamuni, believed to have been brought to Tibet
by his Chinese wife, Princess Wencheng. This temple became a cornerstone of
Tibetan religious life, symbolizing the fusion of spiritual devotion and
political unity. Over the centuries, it has been expanded and restored by
successive rulers and spiritual leaders, including the Fifth Dalai Lama, who
oversaw major renovations that shaped the temple’s present form.
Architecturally, Jokhang Temple is a harmonious blend of Indian, Nepalese, and
Chinese styles, reflecting the diverse cultural influences that converged in
Tibet during its formative periods. Its golden roofs gleam above Lhasa’s
skyline, while the intricately carved doorways, murals, and chapels evoke
centuries of artistic and devotional craftsmanship. The temple complex
includes a central sanctuary housing the Jowo Shakyamuni statue, surrounded by
108 chapels dedicated to deities from various Buddhist sects. The layout
follows a longitudinal axis, with courtyards and colonnaded verandas that
guide pilgrims through layers of sacred space.
Beyond its architectural grandeur, Jokhang Temple remains a living center of
devotion. Pilgrims from across Tibet and beyond journey to Lhasa to perform
kora—circumambulating the temple while spinning prayer wheels and chanting
mantras. This ritual, often carried out along Barkhor Street, embodies the
turning of the Dharma wheel and the deep yearning for spiritual merit. The
temple also hosts the annual Great Prayer Festival (Monlam), drawing thousands
of monks and devotees in a collective expression of faith. In this convergence
of history, art, and devotion, Jokhang Temple stands not only as a monument
but as a pulse of Tibetan identity and spiritual continuity.
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Panorama of the facade of the Jokhang Temple
The
architecture of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa is a masterful synthesis of
Indian, Nepalese, and Chinese styles, reflecting the cultural
convergence that shaped early Tibetan Buddhism.
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Originally constructed in the 7th century under King Songtsen Gampo,
the temple was designed to house sacred Buddhist images brought by his
wives—Princess Wencheng of Tang China and Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal.
Nepalese artisans played a central role in its construction,
contributing intricate woodwork and sculptural elements. The temple’s
orientation—facing west toward Nepal—is said to honor Princess
Bhrikuti, while its layout follows the Indian vihara model, with a
central shrine surrounded by chapels and courtyards that evoke the
mandala structure of Buddhist cosmology.
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The Jokhang’s exterior is distinguished by its gilded bronze rooftops,
sloped walls, and richly ornamented façades. The rooftop is crowned
with iconic symbols: two golden deer flanking a Dharma wheel,
representing the Buddha’s first sermon at Deer Park. These elements,
along with the ornate finials and sculptural motifs, shimmer in the
high-altitude sunlight, creating a visual beacon in the heart of
Lhasa. Inside, the temple is a labyrinth of chapels and sanctuaries,
dimly lit by butter lamps and thick with incense. Murals stretch
across the walls, narrating the life of the Buddha, Tibetan legends,
and the journey of Princess Wencheng. Despite damage during the
Cultural Revolution, many original features—such as 7th-century wooden
beams and Newari door frames—have survived or been carefully restored.
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Symbolically, the architecture of Jokhang Temple embodies the
spiritual and political aspirations of Tibet’s formative era. Its
mandala-like design places the Jowo Shakyamuni statue—the most revered
image of the Buddha in Tibet—at the center, anchoring the temple as a
cosmic axis. The surrounding chapels radiate outward like petals of a
lotus, each dedicated to deities, bodhisattvas, and historical
figures. The temple’s spatial arrangement invites pilgrims into a
journey of inner transformation, guiding them from the outer world
into the sanctum of awakening. In this way, Jokhang is not merely a
building—it is a sacred vessel, a living mandala, and a testament to
the enduring fusion of devotion, artistry, and cultural memory.
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Enclosure with the Tang-Tibet Alliance Stele
In front of the
Jokhang Temple in Lhasa stands a modest yet historically profound
enclosure housing the Tang-Tibet Alliance Stele, carved in 823 CE.
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This stele commemorates a treaty between the Tibetan King Ralpacan and
the Tang Emperor Muzong, marking a rare moment of diplomatic harmony
between two great civilizations. The inscription, rendered in both
Tibetan and Classical Chinese, declares the mutual respect and
peaceful coexistence of the two realms, and affirms the boundaries
agreed upon. It is not merely a stone monument—it is a testament to
the shared aspirations of cultural exchange and political stability in
the early 9th century.
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The enclosure itself is simple and unassuming, allowing the stele to
remain the focal point. Nearby, the so-called “Princess Willow” is
said to have been planted by Princess Wencheng, the Chinese consort of
King Songtsen Gampo, whose marriage symbolized the earliest ties
between Tibet and Tang China. This tree, entwined with legend, adds a
living dimension to the stone’s silent endurance. The stele’s presence
in such a spiritually charged space—where pilgrims prostrate and
circle in devotion—imbues it with layers of meaning that transcend its
diplomatic origins. It becomes part of the sacred landscape, a bridge
between worldly affairs and spiritual continuity.
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Over time, the area around the stele has seen changes, including the
addition of Chinese-style pavilions that have sparked debate among
locals and preservationists. These structures, while intended to
protect the monument, have been criticized for crowding the temple’s
forecourt and altering its visual harmony. Yet the stele itself
remains untouched, a quiet witness to centuries of transformation,
reverence, and resistance. In its weathered surface, one can still
trace the aspirations of a moment when empires sought peace—and in its
enduring presence, the resilience of Tibetan memory.
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Aromatic wood burning furnace and prayer wheels
Aromatic
wood burning furnace and prayer wheels at a small, ancient Buddhist
monastery in Lhasa, on Barkor Street, not far from Jokang Monastery. The
outdoor incense burners—often large, chimney-like ovens—positioned
around the Barkhor Ring Road serve as sacred vessels for the offering of
aromatic woods, herbs, and grasses, such as juniper and rhododendron.
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Their smoke rises continuously, mingling with the breath of pilgrims
and the chants of mantras, creating a fragrant veil that sanctifies
the space. Spiritually, this act of burning is an offering to the
unseen: to deities, protectors, and the elemental forces that shape
Tibetan cosmology. Symbolically, the ascending smoke represents
purification, the dissolution of ego, and the aspiration for clarity
and awakening. It is a gesture of devotion that transforms the mundane
into the sacred, linking earth and sky in a visible thread of prayer.
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Prayer wheels, meanwhile, line the Barkhor circuit in rhythmic
continuity, inviting pilgrims to engage in tactile meditation. Each
wheel contains scrolls inscribed with mantras—most commonly
Om Mani Padme Hum—and spinning them is believed to release the
prayers into the world, multiplying their merit. The act is both
physical and metaphysical: the turning of the wheel mirrors the
turning of the Dharma, the cyclical nature of existence, and the
aspiration to liberate all beings from suffering. On the Barkhor,
these wheels are not ornamental—they are integral to the spiritual
choreography of the kora, allowing even those who cannot read or
recite to participate in the flow of sacred intention.
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Together, the incense burners and prayer wheels form a living mandala
around the Jokhang Temple, each element reinforcing the other in a
dance of devotion. The smoke purifies the path, the wheels activate
the prayers, and the pilgrims embody the journey. This convergence of
fire, motion, and mantra transforms the Barkhor Ring Road into more
than a street—it becomes a ritual landscape, where every breath, step,
and gesture is part of a collective offering. In this space, the
spiritual and symbolic are inseparable, and the city itself becomes a
vessel of awakening.
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Qing Residential Office in Tibet
Historic Qing government
building in Lhasa, featuring traditional Tibetan architecture and
Chinese signage. The Qing dynasty’s presence in Lhasa unfolded
gradually, shaped by both religious diplomacy and strategic
intervention.
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Initial contact was marked by the Fifth Dalai Lama’s visit to Beijing
in 1653, where he was received not as a subordinate but as a spiritual
sovereign, reflecting the “priest-patron” relationship that would
define Qing-Tibetan ties for centuries. This symbolic alliance allowed
the Qing emperors to claim spiritual legitimacy while Tibet retained
considerable autonomy. The relationship was not one of direct rule but
of mutual recognition, with the Dalai Lama offering blessings and the
emperor providing protection—an arrangement that blurred the lines
between sovereignty and spiritual patronage.
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The Qing’s military involvement in Lhasa intensified in the early 18th
century, particularly after the Dzungar invasion of 1717. In response,
the Qing court dispatched troops to expel the invaders and install the
Seventh Dalai Lama, marking the beginning of a more assertive
protectorate role. By 1728, Qing forces had brutally suppressed
internal Tibetan factions, establishing a firmer grip on governance
through the appointment of Ambans—imperial representatives stationed
in Lhasa. These Ambans wielded considerable influence, though their
authority was often contested by local monastic and noble
institutions. The Qing presence was thus both stabilizing and
intrusive, a delicate balance of control and concession.
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By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Qing influence in Lhasa
waned as internal crises—such as the Taiping Rebellion and the Boxer
Uprising—distracted the imperial court. Tibetan nationalism began to
stir, culminating in the 13th Dalai Lama’s declaration of independence
in 1912 following the collapse of the Qing dynasty. The Ambans were
expelled, and Tibet entered a period of de facto autonomy, with Lhasa
emerging as the center of a self-governed Buddhist state. Though the
Qing left behind administrative traces and symbolic claims, their
legacy in Lhasa is remembered as a complex interplay of spiritual
alliance, military intervention, and eventual retreat.
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Pilgrims circumambulate the Jokhang Temple
Circumambulation,
or kora in Tibetan, holds profound spiritual significance in
Vajrayana Buddhism.
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It is not merely a physical act of walking around a sacred object or
site—it is a ritual of devotion, purification, and alignment with the
cosmic order. Practitioners move clockwise, symbolizing harmony with
the sun’s path and the turning of the Dharma wheel. Each step is
imbued with intention: to accumulate merit, purify karma, and deepen
one’s connection to the sacred. The act becomes a moving meditation,
where body, breath, and mantra converge in a rhythm of reverence. In
Vajrayana, where symbolism and ritual are central, circumambulation is
a way to embody the teachings and participate in the mandala of
awakened presence.
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Nowhere is this practice more vividly alive than on the Barkhor Ring
Road encircling the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. This ancient path, worn
smooth by centuries of footsteps, is one of the most revered
pilgrimage circuits in Tibet. Devotees—monks, laypeople, elders, and
children—walk the Barkhor daily, spinning prayer wheels, murmuring
mantras, or performing full-body prostrations. The route itself is
considered a sacred mandala, with the Jokhang Temple at its heart,
housing the Jowo Shakyamuni statue, one of the most venerated images
of the Buddha in Tibet. To walk the Barkhor is to enter a spiritual
choreography where the city’s pulse beats in time with the aspirations
of countless pilgrims.
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The Barkhor is more than ritual—it is a living testament to Tibetan
resilience and faith. Even amid political tensions and modern
transformations, the kora continues, uninterrupted and unwavering.
During festivals like Losar or Saga Dawa, the Barkhor becomes a river
of devotion, flowing with thousands of pilgrims in shared prayer. The
act of circumambulation here is not only personal but communal,
binding individuals into a collective expression of spiritual
continuity. In this convergence of movement, mantra, and memory, the
Barkhor Ring Road becomes a sacred artery through which the lifeblood
of Tibetan Buddhism flows.
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Barkhor Ring Road
The Barkhor Ring Road, known locally as
Barkhor Street, encircles the sacred Jokhang Temple in the heart of
Lhasa and serves as both a spiritual and cultural artery of the old
city.
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Established in the 7th century, it began as a simple pilgrim path
trodden by devotees circumambulating the temple in reverence. Over
time, this path evolved into a formal kora route—a clockwise ritual
walk that embodies devotion, purification, and the turning of the
Dharma wheel. The road, roughly one kilometer in circumference, became
a living mandala, where the physical act of walking mirrors the inner
journey of transformation and prayer.
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Architecturally and atmospherically, Barkhor Street preserves the
essence of traditional Tibetan urban life. Its stone-paved path is
lined with centuries-old buildings, many of which were originally
family-run lodgings for pilgrims and traders. Today, these structures
house bustling shops, teahouses, and workshops offering thangkas,
prayer wheels, incense, and ritual objects. The air is thick with the
scent of juniper and the murmur of mantras, while the rhythmic motion
of pilgrims—some spinning wheels, others prostrating—creates a
tapestry of devotion that pulses through the street. Despite modern
pressures, Barkhor retains its role as a sacred threshold between the
worldly and the divine.
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Beyond its spiritual significance, Barkhor Street is a vibrant
marketplace and a stage for Tibetan cultural expression. Festivals
such as Losar and Saga Dawa bring waves of celebrants, monks, and
laypeople into its orbit, transforming the street into a ceremonial
corridor. The presence of the large incense burner at its center,
cloaked in fragrant smoke day and night, anchors the space in ritual
continuity. Barkhor is not merely a road—it is a living archive of
Tibetan resilience, faith, and identity, where every step taken echoes
centuries of devotion and every stone bears witness to the enduring
spirit of Lhasa.
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Dongsu Lhamo Wall
Nestled behind the sangkang—the large
incense burner that marks the spiritual threshold of the Jokhang
Temple—the Dongsu Lhamo Wall stands as a quiet yet potent locus of
devotion on Barkhor Street.
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This wall, embedded with reliefs of Buddhist deities, is not merely
decorative; it is a tactile interface between the pilgrim and the
divine. The central figure, Dongsu Lhamo, daughter of the fierce
protector goddess Palden Lhamo, is venerated as a guardian of the
temple and the city itself. Her presence here is not symbolic alone—it
is believed to be active, vigilant, and responsive to the offerings
and prayers of those who pass.
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The rituals performed at the wall are intimate and elemental. Pilgrims
pause mid-kora to anoint the reliefs with yak butter, a gesture of
nourishment and reverence that softens the stone and deepens its
sacred imprint. Tsampa, the roasted barley flour that sustains both
body and spirit, is gently pressed into the crevices as an offering of
abundance and protection. These acts are not performed in
isolation—they are woven into the rhythm of the Barkhor, accompanied
by the murmured mantras and the ever-rising smoke of juniper from the
sangkang. The air becomes thick with devotion, and the wall itself
seems to breathe with the prayers of generations.
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In this convergence of image, ritual, and atmosphere, the Dongsu Lhamo
Wall reveals the soul of Barkhor Street—not as a marketplace, but as a
living sanctuary. It is a place where the sacred is not confined to
temple interiors but spills into the public realm, where stone and
smoke, flour and butter, become mediums of spiritual exchange. For
Tibetan pilgrims, this wall is not a relic—it is a companion on the
path, a witness to their devotion, and a protector of their journey.
In its quiet endurance, it holds the pulse of Lhasa’s spiritual life.
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Sacred Tree of Jokhang
The Sacred Jokhang Tree, known in
Tibetan as Gya Nag Seng-ge, stands quietly yet profoundly on
Barkhor Street, just in front of the Jokhang Temple.
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Though its origins are not extensively documented, its presence is
deeply woven into the spiritual and social fabric of Lhasa. It is not
merely a tree—it is a living witness to centuries of devotion,
pilgrimage, and communal life. For many, especially the elderly and
long-time residents, it serves as a familiar anchor in a city that
pulses with movement and transformation. Its gnarled trunk and
generous shade offer a moment of stillness amid the sacred bustle of
the Barkhor kora.
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Symbolically, the tree embodies stability and continuity. In a
landscape defined by ritual motion—pilgrims circling the temple,
prayer wheels spinning, incense rising—the tree remains rooted, a
silent guardian of tradition. It is a place of gathering, where
stories are exchanged, mantras recited, and malas turned with quiet
reverence. The tree’s shade becomes a sanctuary, not only from the sun
but from the weight of worldly concerns. Its presence affirms that
sacredness is not confined to temples and statues—it can live in bark
and leaf, in the pause between steps, in the breath shared among
neighbors.
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Together with the sangkang incense burner and the Dongsu Lhamo Wall,
the Sacred Jokhang Tree completes a triad of devotional landmarks that
shape the spiritual atmosphere of Barkhor Street. These elements
transform the public space into a ritual landscape, where faith is
enacted not only in grand gestures but in the everyday rhythms of
Tibetan life. The tree, in its quiet endurance, becomes a symbol of
rootedness—of heritage held gently in the present, of a people whose
devotion is as natural and enduring as the growth of a tree in sacred
soil.
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Panorama of Barkhor Ring Road
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Returning to the front of the Jokhang Temple
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Lining up to enter the Jokhang Temple
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Pilgrims prostrating themselves at the temple portico
In
Vajrayana Buddhism, prostration is a profound act of devotion,
purification, and surrender. It is not merely a gesture of reverence—it
is a full-bodied prayer, a ritual that unites physical movement with
spiritual intention.
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By lowering oneself to the ground, the practitioner symbolically
releases pride, ego, and attachment, offering the body, speech, and
mind to the path of awakening. The act is often accompanied by
recitation of mantras or visualizations of enlightened beings,
transforming each motion into a sacred offering. In this tradition,
prostration is both a method of accumulating merit and a practice of
inner transformation, where humility becomes the gateway to wisdom.
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At the portico of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, this ritual takes on
heightened significance. Pilgrims from across Tibet and beyond arrive
after arduous journeys, many having performed full-body prostrations
for hundreds of kilometers. The temple’s entrance becomes a threshold
between the worldly and the sacred, and the stone courtyard before the
portico is worn smooth by generations of devotion. Here, prostration
is not only personal—it is communal and historical. The presence of
the Jowo Shakyamuni statue within the temple intensifies the spiritual
gravity of the site, drawing pilgrims into a magnetic field of faith.
Each descent to the earth is a gesture of homage to the Buddha, to the
lineage, and to the sacred geography of Lhasa itself.
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The portico thus becomes a living altar, where the body’s motion
echoes the soul’s longing. The rhythmic sound of hands and foreheads
meeting stone, the murmured prayers, and the scent of juniper smoke
from nearby incense burners create an atmosphere of deep sanctity. In
this convergence of movement, mantra, and place, prostration becomes a
ritual of embodiment—where the pilgrim enacts the path of liberation
with each breath and bow. It is a choreography of surrender and
aspiration, inscribed not only in the body but in the very stones of
Jokhang’s threshold, where devotion leaves its mark in silence and
repetition.
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Dhrtarastra, the Heavenly King of the East (left) and Virudhaka, the
Heavenly King of the South (right)
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Dhrtarastra, the Heavenly King of the
East, embodies the principle of harmonious resonance and the protection
of the Dharma through sound and music.
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He is often depicted holding a stringed instrument, symbolizing his
role in maintaining cosmic order through vibrational balance.
Spiritually, Dhrtarastra governs the eastern quarter of Mount Meru,
the mythic axis of the universe, and commands celestial musicians who
dispel discord and cultivate inner harmony. His presence in mandalas
and temple iconography serves as a reminder that spiritual protection
arises not only from force but from attunement, rhythm, and the subtle
orchestration of energies aligned with the Dharma.
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Virudhaka, the Heavenly King of the South, represents growth,
expansion, and the fierce protection of spiritual integrity. He wields
a sword, signifying his role in cutting through ignorance and
defending the southern realm of Mount Meru. In Vajrayana symbolism,
Virudhaka is associated with the purification of defilements and the
cultivation of ethical discipline. His wrathful aspect is not
malevolent but transformative, channeling righteous power to uphold
sacred boundaries and eliminate obstacles to awakening. Together with
Dhrtarastra and the other Directional Kings, Virudhaka forms part of
the protective mandala that surrounds sacred space, ensuring that
practitioners can engage in ritual and meditation without interference
from chaotic or harmful forces.
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Inside the Jokhang Monastery in Lhasa, the statues of Dhrtarastra and
Virudhaka stand as imposing guardians near the entrance, flanking the
threshold to the sacred interior. Dhrtarastra is typically shown with
his musical instrument, his gaze serene yet vigilant, while Virudhaka
appears more wrathful, brandishing his sword with dynamic posture.
These statues are not merely decorative—they are ritually consecrated
embodiments of protective energy, infused through ceremony with the
power to ward off spiritual disturbances. Their placement at the
monastery’s gateway reflects their role as sentinels of the Dharma,
ensuring that all who enter are aligned with reverence and purity of
intent.
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Top photograph by Gerd Eichmann, distributed under a CC-BY 4.0
license.
- Bottom photographs by Gary Todd, in the public domain.
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Virupaksa, the Heavenly King of the West (left) and Vaisravana, the
Heavenly King of the North (right)
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Virupaksa, the Heavenly King of the West,
embodies the principle of inner vision and the vigilant discernment of
truth.
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He is often depicted holding a serpent or a stupa, symbolizing his
mastery over hidden forces and his role in guarding the Dharma against
deception and illusion. Spiritually, Virupaksa governs the western
quarter of Mount Meru and is associated with the element of water,
reflecting depth, intuition, and the capacity to perceive beyond
surface appearances. His presence in ritual mandalas serves as a
reminder that spiritual protection includes the cultivation of insight
and the ability to detect and dissolve subtle distortions in
perception.
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Vaisravana, the Heavenly King of the North, is the most prominent
among the Four Kings and is revered as a guardian of wealth,
stability, and righteous power. He is typically shown holding a banner
of victory and a mongoose that spits jewels, signifying his role in
overcoming greed and redistributing abundance for the benefit of all
beings. In Vajrayana symbolism, Vaisravana is closely linked to the
practice of generosity and the protection of sacred space through
ethical strength. His northern domain represents firmness and
endurance, and his spiritual function includes both the defense of the
Dharma and the support of practitioners through material and energetic
stability. As a figure of regal authority, Vaisravana also serves as a
bridge between worldly kingship and enlightened rule.
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Inside the Jokhang Monastery in Lhasa, the statues of Virupaksa and
Vaisravana stand opposite their eastern and southern counterparts,
completing the protective mandala at the temple’s entrance. Virupaksa
is portrayed with a penetrating gaze and a coiled serpent, his stance
alert and contemplative, while Vaisravana appears richly adorned,
exuding majesty and command. These statues are ritually empowered and
serve not only as guardians but as embodiments of the spiritual
principles they represent. Their placement affirms the monastery’s
alignment with cosmic order and offers visitors a symbolic passage
through the fourfold gate of protection, insight, harmony, and ethical
power.
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Photograph by Gerd Eichmann, distributed under a CC-BY 4.0 license.
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Gushri Khan with the 5th Dalai Lama
Gushri Khan, the Mongol
ruler and military patron of the Gelug school, holds symbolic
significance in Vajrayana Buddhism as a worldly protector of the Dharma.
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His alliance with the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century was not
merely political—it marked a pivotal moment in the consolidation of
spiritual authority in Tibet. By defeating rival factions and
installing the Dalai Lama as both spiritual and temporal leader,
Gushri Khan became a dharma king in the classical sense: a sovereign
whose power was wielded in service of enlightened rule. Spiritually,
his role echoes the archetype of the wrathful guardian who clears
obstacles for the flourishing of sacred transmission, embodying the
fierce compassion that defends the path of awakening.
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The 5th Dalai Lama, Lobzang Gyatso, is revered in Vajrayana Buddhism
as a visionary leader who unified Tibet and established the Ganden
Phodrang government. His spiritual significance lies in his embodiment
of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, and his role in
institutionalizing the Dalai Lama lineage as both religious and
political authority. He was a prolific writer, ritualist, and builder,
commissioning major temples and integrating diverse lineages into a
coherent tantric polity. His reign represents a fusion of mystical
insight and pragmatic governance, where ritual, art, and diplomacy
served the higher aim of preserving and transmitting the Vajrayana
path. His legacy continues to shape Tibetan Buddhist identity and its
global resonance.
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Inside the Jokhang Monastery, wall paintings depict Gushri Khan and
the 5th Dalai Lama with solemn grandeur. These murals, likely created
under the influence of Choying Gyatso’s workshop in the mid-17th
century, portray Gushri Khan in regal attire beside the Dalai Lama or
his regent, affirming their joint role in Tibet’s spiritual
consolidation. The compositions are rich in symbolic detail, with
surrounding figures and iconography that situate their alliance within
a cosmic and historical framework. These paintings are not mere
historical records—they are visual mandalas of protection,
transmission, and enlightened rule, consecrated to preserve the memory
of a sacred turning point in Tibetan Buddhist history.
- Photograph by G41rn8, distributed under a CC-BY 4.0 license.
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Yamantaka
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Yamantaka is the wrathful
manifestation of Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom, and serves as the
conqueror of death.
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His name means "Terminator of Yama," the lord of death, and his
iconography is deliberately terrifying—multiple heads, arms, and legs,
often trampling demons and animals—yet his essence is deeply
compassionate. Yamantaka embodies the fierce wisdom that annihilates
ignorance and ego, not through cruelty but through radical
transformation. He is invoked in advanced tantric practices to
overcome fear, attachment, and the illusion of permanence, guiding
practitioners through the terrifying thresholds of inner dissolution
toward liberation.
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Spiritually, Yamantaka represents the paradox of wrathful compassion:
he appears monstrous to the ego but is a protector of the deepest
truth. His form is a mandala of enlightened ferocity, where every
weapon and gesture serves to dismantle delusion. In Vajrayana ritual,
meditating on Yamantaka is a profound act of confronting death—not
just physical death, but the death of false identity and clinging. His
presence in temple iconography signals the readiness to face ultimate
truths and to transform fear into awakened clarity. He is especially
revered in the Gelug tradition, where his practice is considered one
of the most powerful for purifying karmic obscurations and protecting
the Dharma.
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Inside the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Yamantaka is enshrined in a
striking black statue that commands attention and reverence. The
figure has three heads, with the topmost being that of a
bull—symbolizing unstoppable force and the transcendence of death.
This statue, though compact in scale compared to other temple icons,
radiates intense spiritual energy. Its black coloration emphasizes the
depth and mystery of Yamantaka’s wisdom, while the triadic heads
reflect his capacity to perceive and act across multiple realms.
Positioned among other wrathful deities, this image serves as a
gateway for practitioners to engage with the fierce compassion
required for true transformation.
- Photograph by G41rn8, distributed under a CC-BY 4.0 license.
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Assembly Hall
In Vajrayana Buddhism, the Assembly Hall of a
monastery serves as the ritual heart of the community, where monastic
practitioners gather for collective ceremonies, teachings, and tantric
initiations.
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It is not merely a physical space but a mandalic container for the
enactment of sacred cycles, where the presence of deities, lineage
masters, and ritual instruments converge. The hall embodies the
principle of sangha—the spiritual community—and its architecture often
reflects cosmic order, with thrones, mandalas, and symbolic
orientations that mirror the tantric universe. Within this space, the
oral transmission of teachings, the recitation of mantras, and the
performance of mudras and visualizations are ritually amplified by
communal resonance.
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Spiritually, the Assembly Hall is a vessel for continuity and
transformation. It holds the memory of generations of practice and
serves as a living archive of lineage blessings. In Vajrayana, where
secrecy and empowerment are central, the hall becomes a threshold
between the visible and invisible worlds—a place where initiates
receive transmissions that awaken latent potentials and where ritual
enactments shape the subtle body and mind. The hall’s acoustics,
iconography, and spatial design are all calibrated to support
meditative absorption and the unfolding of realization. It is both a
sanctuary and a crucible, where the fire of devotion and the precision
of tantric method are fused.
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The Assembly Hall of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa is a solemn and
richly adorned chamber that hosts daily rituals, monastic gatherings,
and major ceremonial events. It is centered around the revered Jowo
Shakyamuni statue, considered the most sacred image in Tibet, and
surrounded by thrones for lineage masters and high lamas. The hall’s
pillars are wrapped in brocade, and its walls are lined with murals
and statues that narrate the history of Tibetan Buddhism and its
protectors. Incense, chanting, and ritual instruments fill the space
with a palpable sense of sanctity. As the spiritual nucleus of the
temple, the Assembly Hall embodies the convergence of historical
memory, living practice, and cosmic order.
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Photograph by Luca Galuzzi, distributed under a CC-BY 2.5 license.
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Padmasanbava
Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche,
holds profound symbolic and spiritual significance in Vajrayana Buddhism
as the tantric master who established the esoteric teachings in Tibet.
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He is revered as a second Buddha, especially within the Nyingma
tradition, and is credited with subduing hostile forces and
transforming the land into a fertile ground for Dharma. His
iconography—often depicted seated in royal posture, holding a vajra
and skull cup—embodies mastery over life and death, and his gaze
reflects unwavering awareness. Spiritually, Padmasambhava represents
the union of skillful means and wisdom, the dynamic force that awakens
latent potential through ritual, mantra, and visionary practice.
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His legacy is inseparable from the transmission of Dzogchen, the Great
Perfection teachings, which emphasize direct realization of the nature
of mind. Padmasambhava’s life is surrounded by miraculous events,
symbolic of his transcendence of ordinary limitations and his capacity
to manifest in multiple forms to guide beings. He is also the source
of terma, hidden teachings meant to be revealed when conditions ripen,
reinforcing the living, adaptive nature of Vajrayana. Devotion to
Padmasambhava is often expressed through prayer, visualization, and
pilgrimage, with his presence invoked to dispel obstacles and ignite
the flame of realization.
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Inside the Assembly Hall of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Padmasambhava
is enshrined in a richly adorned statue that radiates solemnity and
power. Seated in majestic posture, he wears a lotus hat and holds the
vajra and skull cup, symbols of his tantric mastery. The statue is
surrounded by offerings and ritual implements, affirming his role as a
living source of blessing and protection. Though the Jokhang is
primarily associated with the Jowo Shakyamuni image, Padmasambhava’s
presence within the Assembly Hall reflects the temple’s embrace of
Vajrayana’s visionary depth and its reverence for the master who
ensured the Dharma’s survival and flourishing in Tibet.
- Top photograph by Gary Todd, in the public domain.
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Bottom photograph by G41rn8, distributed under a CC-BY 4.0 license.
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Main Open Courtyard seen from east to west
The Main Open
Courtyard of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa serves as both a physical and
symbolic threshold between the outer world and the sacred interior.
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Positioned just before the temple’s main hall, this courtyard is a
space of transition, where pilgrims gather, prepare, and orient
themselves before entering the sanctum that houses the revered Jowo
Shakyamuni statue. Architecturally, it reflects the Indian vihara
model, with open space framed by colonnades and surrounding chapels,
allowing light and air to circulate freely. The courtyard’s stone
slabs are worn smooth by centuries of prostrations, each mark a
testament to the devotion of countless pilgrims who have bowed in
reverence at this very spot.
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Spiritually, the courtyard is a place of purification and intention.
Before stepping into the temple’s inner sanctum, pilgrims often pause
here to light butter lamps, recite prayers, and perform full-body
prostrations. The open sky above and the golden roofs of the temple
shimmering in the sunlight create a sense of cosmic alignment—earth,
body, and heaven momentarily joined in ritual. The courtyard also
hosts ceremonial gatherings during major festivals like Monlam Chenmo,
when monks and laypeople converge in collective prayer and recitation.
In these moments, the space transforms into a living mandala, where
the architecture itself becomes part of the spiritual choreography.
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Beyond its ritual function, the courtyard is a social and cultural
crossroads. It is where pilgrims from distant regions meet, where
elders sit in quiet reflection, and where the rhythms of Tibetan life
unfold in sacred proximity. The presence of murals, incense burners,
and ancient wooden beams carved by artisans from Nepal and China
speaks to the temple’s layered history and its role as a nexus of
cultural exchange. In this open space, devotion is not confined—it
expands, breathes, and connects. The Main Courtyard of the Jokhang
Temple is thus not only an architectural feature but a vessel of
memory, prayer, and communal presence.
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Panorama of the Main Assembly Hall seen from northwest
The
Main Assembly Hall of the Jokhang Temple is the architectural and
spiritual heart of the complex, housing the most revered image in
Tibetan Buddhism—the Jowo Shakyamuni statue.
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This life-sized figure of the Buddha, believed to depict him at age
twelve and to have been blessed during his lifetime, was brought to
Tibet by Princess Wencheng of the Tang dynasty as part of her dowry.
The hall was originally constructed in the 7th century to enshrine
this sacred image, and over time it became the focal point of
pilgrimage, ritual, and monastic life. Its sanctity is such that
pilgrims often weep upon entering, overwhelmed by the presence of the
Buddha and the centuries of devotion embedded in the space.
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Architecturally, the Main Assembly Hall reflects a synthesis of Indian
vihara layout, Nepalese craftsmanship, and Chinese Tang dynasty
influences. The hall is multi-storied, with timber framing and gilded
bronze roofs that gleam above Lhasa’s skyline. Inside, the space is
dimly lit by butter lamps, casting a golden glow on murals, thangkas,
and statues that line the walls. The central shrine, where the Jowo
Shakyamuni sits, is surrounded by chapels dedicated to various deities
and lineage figures. The hall’s columns are carved with intricate
motifs, and the air is thick with incense and the low hum of chanting,
creating an atmosphere of profound reverence and stillness.
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Spiritually, the Main Assembly Hall serves as a mandala in stone and
wood—a sacred geometry that guides the pilgrim inward. It is the site
of major religious ceremonies, including the Great Prayer Festival
(Monlam Chenmo), when thousands of monks gather to recite scriptures
and perform rituals. The hall is not only a place of worship but a
living archive of Tibetan Buddhist history, where each architectural
detail and ritual gesture carries symbolic weight. In this convergence
of art, devotion, and sacred presence, the Main Assembly Hall stands
as a vessel of awakening, a place where the temporal and the timeless
meet in quiet majesty.
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Panorama of the Main Open Courtyard from northwest
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Panorama of the Main Open Courtyard from west
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Panorama of the Main Open Courtyard from southwest
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Paintings on the interior walls of the Main Open Courtyard
The eight offerings on a Buddhist altar form a symbolic mandala
of devotion, purification, and inner transformation.
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Each gesture is not merely external but reflects a deep spiritual
principle—inviting the practitioner to cultivate clarity, generosity,
ethical refinement, and awakened presence.
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When paired with imaginal symbols such as the blue circle, white
shell, or mound of grains, these offerings become portals into
archetypal experience, bridging the tangible and the subtle.
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They evoke elemental forces—water, earth, fire, air, sound—and mirror
the path of awakening as a ritual of integration, where the outer
offering becomes an inner vow.
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Water for drinking – Blue circle with gold frame
This
offering represents the clarity and purity of intention.
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The blue circle evokes the vastness of awakened mind—limitless,
spacious, and serene—while the golden frame suggests the containment
of wisdom, the ethical boundaries that hold the sacred.
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To offer drinking water is to commit to transparency, truthfulness,
and the nourishment of clear awareness.
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Water for washing – Waves and sea foam
Symbolizing
purification, this offering invites the washing away of obscurations and
karmic residue.
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The waves and foam speak to the dynamic nature of samsara—restless,
ever-shifting—yet capable of cleansing when met with presence.
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It is a ritual of renewal, where the practitioner surrenders to
impermanence and emerges cleansed.
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Flowers – Stalks with leaves
Flowers embody impermanence and
beauty, offered as a recognition of the fleeting nature of form.
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The stalks with leaves suggest growth, unfolding, and the organic
rhythm of virtue.
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This offering honors the blossoming of qualities such as compassion,
patience, and joy, knowing they arise and fade like petals in the
wind.
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Incense – Mound of small grains
Incense represents ethical
conduct and the subtle fragrance of virtue.
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The grains, scattered and numerous, evoke the multiplicity of
wholesome actions—small, often unseen, yet permeating the space with
their presence.
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This offering is a vow to live with integrity, allowing one's actions
to become invisible blessings.
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Light – Mounds of butter (tormas)
Light dispels ignorance
and illuminates the path.
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The butter tormas, sculpted with care, embody devotion and the
radiance of wisdom.
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They are not merely luminous—they are shaped light, intentional and
reverent.
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This offering is a gesture of insight, the flame that reveals the
nature of things.
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Perfume – Brown mound
Perfume signifies refined awareness
and subtle presence.
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The brown mound, earthy and grounded, suggests the aroma of
mindfulness rooted in the body and breath.
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It is an offering of attentiveness, of being fully here, allowing the
senses to awaken without grasping.
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Food – Fruit
Food is the offering of generosity, the
nourishment of body and spirit.
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Fruit, ripe and sweet, symbolizes the fruition of practice—the rewards
of discipline, compassion, and wisdom.
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This gesture affirms abundance, the willingness to give without
expectation, and the joy of shared sustenance.
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Music – White shell
Music evokes joy, harmony, and the
resonance of Dharma.
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The white shell, spiraled and pure, has long been a symbol of the
sacred sound that awakens beings from slumber.
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This offering is a call—a sonic invocation of truth, a celebration of
the path, and a reminder that awakening sings through all things.
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Journey to the Pure Land
In the sacred interior of the
Jokhang Temple, a painting unfolds like a visual sutra—rich in allegory
and layered with spiritual meaning.
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At first glance, it presents a procession of figures: a horse bearing
six flaming jewels, an elephant carrying a golden Dharma wheel, a
regal queen with a blue jewel, a king with another wheel, and a
warrior poised with sword and shield. Yet this is no mere tableau of
mythic characters—it is a symbolic map of the
Journey to the Pure Land, or Dewachen, the realm of
ultimate bliss and enlightenment in Tibetan Buddhism. Each element is
a facet of the path, guiding the viewer through the inner terrain of
transformation.
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The horse (Lungta), swift and noble, embodies the power of
prayer and aspiration. Its burden—the six jewels encased in
fire—represents the six Paramitas: generosity, ethics, patience,
diligence, meditation, and wisdom. These are not static virtues but
living flames, purifying the practitioner’s karma and illuminating the
way forward. The elephant, calm and resolute, carries the Dharma
wheel, symbolizing a mind anchored in the Buddha’s teachings. Its
presence affirms that strength and stability are essential for
spiritual progress. Together, these animals form the foundation of the
journey: aspiration and discipline, motion and mindfulness.
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The human figures deepen the allegory. The king and queen, bearing the
Dharma wheel and the cintamani jewel, embody the union of compassion
(karuna) and wisdom (prajna)—the twin pillars of the
Mahayana path. Their regal bearing suggests mastery not of others, but
of selfless insight and benevolent action. The warrior, clad in armor
and armed with sword and shield, stands as the guardian of the Dharma,
representing the courage to confront ignorance and the resilience to
protect the sacred. In this painting, the path to Dewachen is not
distant or abstract—it is vividly present, encoded in symbols that
speak to the pilgrim’s heart. It is a journey of clarity, strength,
and devotion, rendered in color and form upon the temple’s timeless
walls.
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Kalachakra Symbol
Within the sacred halls of the Jokhang
Temple in Lhasa, one painting stands out for its intricate symbolism and
luminous presence: a depiction of the Kalachakra symbol, rendered with
reverence and precision.
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The central motif consists of the stylized letters of the Kalachakra
monogram, each painted in traditional colors—deep blue, radiant red,
golden yellow, and verdant green—representing the elemental forces and
the union of wisdom and method. These letters are not floating in
abstraction; they are seated upon a lotus, the quintessential symbol
of purity and spiritual awakening, rising unstained from the mire of
worldly existence.
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Encircling the lotus and letters is a jeweled golden nimbus, radiant
and ornate, suggesting both divine illumination and the protective
embrace of enlightened energy. The nimbus is not merely decorative—it
marks the symbol as a living presence, a mandala of time and space,
consciousness and cosmos. Around this central form, the painting
unfolds into a natural setting: sprays of flowers emerge from the
surrounding landscape, some in full bloom, others still in bud. This
interplay of blossoming and potential evokes the cycles of
transformation, the unfolding of inner realization, and the continuity
of spiritual growth.
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The entire composition is grounded in a serene natural world, with
gentle hills and soft light framing the sacred emblem. The flowers,
with their delicate petals and vibrant hues, seem to lean toward the
Kalachakra symbol, as if drawn by its gravitational pull of wisdom. In
this painting, the cosmic and the earthly are not opposed—they are
harmonized. The Kalachakra, often translated as “Wheel of Time,”
becomes here a visual prayer, a still point in the turning world,
inviting the viewer into contemplation of impermanence,
interdependence, and the possibility of awakening within the flow of
existence.
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Awakened Mind
Within the sacred interior of the Jokhang
Temple in Lhasa, one painting stands out for its quiet symbolism and
layered spiritual resonance.
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At its center is a luminous blue circle, encased in a round golden
frame—an image that evokes both the boundless sky and the awakened
mind. The blue circle may be read as a mandala of clarity,
spaciousness, and primordial awareness, while the golden frame
suggests containment and consecration, the union of infinite potential
with sacred form. Beneath this radiant emblem rests a white shell,
from which a faint gray smoke rises like a breath or offering, hinting
at the subtle presence of spirit, prayer, or purification.
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Flanking the golden frame are two drums, each with a drumstick resting
atop, poised as if awaiting ritual activation. In Tibetan iconography,
drums often symbolize the sound of Dharma—the teachings that awaken
beings from ignorance. Their symmetrical placement suggests balance,
rhythm, and the duality of form and emptiness. Surrounding this
central ensemble are flowering and fruit-bearing branches, extending
upward from a tranquil lake below. These branches, rich with life,
represent the blossoming of wisdom and the fruition of spiritual
practice. The lake itself, encircled by gentle green hills, anchors
the composition in a landscape of serenity and abundance, a visual
metaphor for the fertile ground of devotion.
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This painting, though modest in scale, weaves together elemental
motifs—water, earth, air, sound, and light—into a contemplative whole.
It invites the viewer to reflect not only on the symbols but on their
interplay: the shell’s breath rising toward the sky, the drums
awaiting the pulse of ritual, the fruit-laden branches bridging heaven
and earth. In the quiet harmony of its composition, the painting
becomes a visual prayer, a mandala of offering and awakening nestled
within the temple’s sacred walls. It is not merely decorative—it is a
doorway into the symbolic language of Tibetan Buddhism, where every
detail speaks to the path of transformation.
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Sage of Long-Life
Within the sacred precincts of the Jokhang
Temple in Lhasa, among its many chapels and symbolic murals, there
exists a serene and evocative depiction known as the Sage of Long-Life.
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Seated upon a throne nestled in a natural setting, the Sage holds a
staff in his left hand—a symbol of spiritual authority and
guidance—and a jug in his right, from which he pours a stream of water
into two overlapping vases. This flowing gesture forms a gentle
fountain, a visual metaphor for the transmission of vitality, wisdom,
and the uninterrupted flow of blessings. The scene is not static; it
breathes with life and intention, inviting the viewer into a
contemplative space where nature and spirit converge.
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Around the Sage, the tableau unfolds with quiet symbolism. Two white
birds, their black-tipped feathers and red hoopoes vivid against the
soft hues of the background, drink from the cascading water—embodying
purity, receptivity, and the sacred act of nourishment. Above, a
peach-laden tree arches protectively, its fruit a traditional emblem
of longevity and spiritual ripening. Nearby, two gazelles gaze upon
the scene with tranquil awareness, their presence echoing the deer
that flank the Dharma wheel atop the temple’s roof—symbols of the
Buddha’s first teachings and the gentle receptivity of the awakened
mind. This natural setting is not merely decorative; it is a mandala
of life, wisdom, and interconnection.
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Extending from the Sage’s nimbus-crowned head is a luminous thread
that reaches across the landscape to a distant mountain, where a small
red figure sits in lotus posture. This figure, a nimbus Buddha with
hands in lotus mudra, is accompanied by three white lions—guardians of
truth and fearless compassion. The line between them is not just
visual—it is symbolic of transmission, lineage, and the continuity of
enlightened presence across time and space. In this quiet yet potent
composition, the Sage of Long-Life becomes more than a figure; he is a
conduit between earth and sky, between the embodied and the
transcendent, offering a vision of harmony, vitality, and spiritual
endurance that resonates deeply within the heart of Jokhang’s sacred
architecture.
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