The Xi'an Museum, situated within the historic Small Wild Goose Pagoda
complex, serves as a premier repository for artifacts spanning thousands of
years of Chinese history.
The collection is particularly celebrated for its magnificent bronze vessels,
which showcase the sophisticated casting techniques and intricate artistry of
the Western Zhou and Han dynasties. Complementing these metallic masterpieces
are numerous Buddha statues and religious sculptures that reflect the profound
influence of Buddhism in the region, capturing the serene expressions and
graceful drapery characteristic of various historical periods.
Beyond these religious and ceremonial objects, the museum offers a fascinating
glimpse into daily life and burial customs through its extensive collection of
figurines. These terracotta and ceramic figures, which include attendants,
musicians, and animals, are lauded for their expressive detailing and
historical accuracy regarding ancient attire and social hierarchies.
Furthermore, the museum houses exquisite jade artifacts, ranging from ornate
burial items to delicate personal ornaments, which exemplify the high esteem
in which this stone was held for its symbolic association with purity and
moral virtue.
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Entering the Xi'an Museum
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Urban Model of Tang-era Chang'an
During its tenure as the
imperial capital for powerful dynasties such as the Zhou, Qin, Han, and
Tang, ancient Xi'an (historically known as Chang'an) was characterized
by a highly sophisticated, grid-based urban layout that reflected
traditional Chinese cosmological beliefs and bureaucratic hierarchy.
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The city was meticulously designed according to the principles of
Kaogongji, which emphasized a symmetrical, square-shaped city
plan oriented toward the cardinal directions. A primary north-south
axis served as the backbone of the city, anchoring the imperial
palaces and government complexes in the northern central area, which
separated the ruling elite from the dense, organized residential wards
where commoners and merchants lived.
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A remarkable testament to this architectural legacy is the urban model
of Tang-era Chang'an on display at the Xi'an Museum. This detailed
scale model vividly illustrates the city's vast, rigorous modular
structure, showcasing the famous "checkerboard" system of 108 enclosed
residential wards (fang) and the two massive, bustling central
markets—the East Market and the West Market. By viewing this exhibit,
visitors can appreciate the sheer scale of the city, which was once
the eastern terminus of the Silk Road and the most populous,
cosmopolitan metropolis in the world, serving as a physical
manifestation of imperial authority and administrative order.
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Overland Silk Road Map
The overland Silk Road was not a
single path but a complex network of interconnected trade arteries that
spanned the vast terrains of Eurasia, linking Chang’an (modern-day
Xi’an) in the East to the Mediterranean world in the West.
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These routes generally diverged from the Hexi Corridor, traversing the
rugged Taklamakan Desert by splitting into northern and southern
branches that skirted the mountains of Central Asia. Merchants
traveled these paths to exchange precious commodities like silk,
spices, tea, and glassware, while also facilitating the profound
transmission of Buddhism, technologies, and artistic styles between
disparate civilizations.
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Xi’an stood as the undisputed eastern terminus and the primary gateway
for this massive transcontinental exchange. As the imperial capital
during the height of the Tang Dynasty, the city provided the essential
infrastructure, security, and market regulations that made
long-distance commerce possible. The Xi’an Museum features a
sophisticated, comprehensive map and model display of these overland
routes, which visually demonstrates how the city served as the central
node radiating trade connections toward the western frontiers. This
exhibit highlights the strategic significance of the city's geography,
emphasizing how the organized markets and administrative strength of
ancient Xi'an acted as the essential engine for one of history's most
influential cultural and economic networks.
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I. Zhou and Qin civilization
1. Bells ringing and feasts are feasting, carriages, horses, and people
dying in sacrifice
«The capital was the national center of government orders, with a
complete governing institution, and the royal aristocracy was the ruler of the
city. The grand and magnificent palace buildings and the city defenses with
high walls and deep ravines were all meant to highlight and maintain its
supreme status. Exquisite bronze vessels recreate the luxurious lifestyle of
nobles and nobles; The deep tomb filled with chariots, horses, and people
reflecting the pursuit of enjoyment in the afterlife. From the towering
Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor and the majestic Terracotta Army, it's easy
to imagine the grandeur of Qin's unification of the mountains and rivers!»
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Panorama of Imperial Capital
«Charm of the Zhou and Qin
Dynasties, magnificence of the Han and Tang Dynasties, the highlight
periods in history amazed countless people. Previously, people could
only contact the deep history in memory through the exploration in the
vast number of historical records. It is fortunate for people today, as
the birth of archaeology has changed all this, especially the
archaeologists' continuous attention and excavation of Xi'an for
decades. With a large quantity of precious cultural relics of previous
dynasties unearthed, people have the opportunity to admire them at close
range, experiencing and envisaging the life panorama of the imperial
capital of millennium.»
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Zhou and Qin Civilizations
«The Western Zhou Dynasty was the
peak of China's development in the pre-Qin era. At its peak, the
territory of the dynasty was far ahead of that of the previous
dynasties. It was near the sea in the east, reached ningxia and Gansu in
the east in the west, reached the foot of the Yanshan Mountains in the
north, and covered the banks of the Yangtze River in the south. Fenghao
was the most important political, economic and cultural center of the
Western Zhou Dynasty, as well as the first capital of Chang 'an to rule
Jiuzhou. It was here that the Zhou people built palaces, made rites and
music, and conferred vassals, shaping the land of China into a state of
rites and ceremonies, laying the cultural foundation for the formation
of the Chinese nation, and exerting a decisive influence on the
development direction of Chinese civilization.
The Qin Dynasty was the first unified centralized county system in
Chinese history, and its territory reached as far as Korea in the east,
lingnan in the south, Yinshan in the north and Plateau in the west. As
the political, economic and cultural center of the Qin Dynasty,
xianyang, the imperial capital, was far ahead of the capital in scale.
As the center of "the convergence of the world", Xianyang City of Qin
Dynasty has pushed the development of ancient Chinese cities to a peak.
Here, Qin Shihuang established a complete set of state governance
system, which had a profound impact on China's political system for the
following two thousand years. We still benefit from the social
governance measures he implemented to consolidate unification.»
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«With complete ruling institutions, the capital city was the political
center of the country, which was dominated by the royal family and
aristocrats. Majestic palace architecture and city-defending, such as
high walls and deep moat, have all been use to make the supreme status
of the emperor conspicuous. The exquisite bronze wares have reproduced
the extravagant life led by the royal families and aristocrats; the huge
tombs with chariots, horses and servants buried alive reflected the
pursuit of future life enjoyment. From the tall mausoleum of the First
Qin Emperor to the mighty and sturdy terracotta warriors and horses, it
is not difficult to imagine the magnificent verve of the Qin Dynasty
after its unification of China.»
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Hiding gifts in utensils
«Ritual (li) is the general
principle and norm of people's social life. In the Western Zhou Dynasty,
ritual permeated all aspects of political principles, ethics, and
institutional systems. The system of ritual vessels, represented by the
sounds of bells and the eating of tripods, constituted an important part
of the Zhou people's ritual norms. The quantity and size of bronze
ritual vessels also signified the rank and status of the nobility.»
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Bronze Food Container with Inscription as a Ritual Ware
Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE), Chang'an District, Xi'an in 1981.
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Bronze Food Container as a Ritual Ware with Studs
Western
Zhou (1046-771 BCE), Acquired in Fufeng County, Baoji City, Shaanxi
Province.
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Bronze Cooking Vessel with Geometric Pattern as a Ritual Ware
Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE), unearthed from the Fenghao Site,
Chang'an District, Xi'an in 1973.
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A wine vessel that can also be used to warm wine; it has no spout or
tail
A drinking vessel, deep in body, with a spout at the front for
pouring wine
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«Four vessels of the same type were unearthed, all with identical shape
and decoration. The gui vessel is flat and wide, with a lid and a square
base connected to a ring foot. The lid is domed with a trumpet-shaped
handle in the center; when removed and inverted, it resembles a bowl.
The rim tapers upwards, the belly is shallow, the neck is slightly
constricted, and the two animal-shaped handles are robust and
well-developed, with hook-shaped pendants hanging below them. The lid,
belly, and base are each decorated with four identical taotie motifs.
Above the brows of the taoties on the belly is a beast face, and the
ring foot is decorated with four opposing dragon motifs. The entire
vessel is dominated by taotie motifs, with cloud patterns in incised
lines adorning the background and the main motif. The lid and the center
of the belly each bear a six-line, 57-character inscription with
identical content.»
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Bronze Water Vessel with Inscription of 123 Words as a Ritual Ware
Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE), unearthed in Lantian Country, Xi'an
in 1969.
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«The inscription records that Duke Yi, entrusted by the emperor,
bestowed land upon Shi Yong. The land granted was adjacent to that of
Shi Sufu, located in the present-day Luoshui area of Shaanxi
Province. Also present at the land-granting ceremony were ministers
such as Jingbo, Rongbo, Yinshi, Shi Sufu, and Yizhong, as well as
officials including the Situ, Sigong, Shiguan, and Shishi. This
inscription is of significant historical value for the study of the
land system of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the historical figures of
that time, and is an important bronze artifact from the reign of King
Gong of Zhou.»
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Yongzhong
«The Yongzhong is an important bronze musical
instrument that appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty. It was played in
ensembles and was popular throughout the north and south. Its shape and
playing method are both distinctive: the Yongzhong has a shank, which
allows the bell to be suspended face down on a frame for playing.»
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2. Earthen Chamber Hearth Pit, Stone Plow and Wooden Plow
«During
the Western Zhou Dynasty, the social productivity was still under development.
Compared with the noble class, ordinary laborers still lived in simple houses
and used the mostly pottery household goods. stone, wooden, bone and shell
instruments of production were commonly found among them while metals were
rare. In the capital, there were a large number of various craftsmen offering
services to royal families and aristocrats. It was them that have created
splendid bronze culture. After the Warring States period, iron wares became
prevalent, which promoted the economic development and laid a solid material
foundation for social transformation.»
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«During the Western Zhou Dynasty, the social productivity was still
under development. Compared with the noble class, ordinary laborers
still lived in simple houses and used the mostly pottery household
goods. stone, wooden, bone and shell instruments of production were
commonly found among them while metals were rare. In the capital, there
were a large number of various craftsmen offering services to royal
families and aristocrats. It was them that have created splendid bronze
culture. After the Warring States period, iron wares became prevalent,
which promoted the economic development and laid a solid material
foundation for social transformation.»
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Jade Stem Cup
Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), unearthed from the
Epang Palace site in Xi'an.
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The cup features intricate carved patterns, including leaf,
interlocked cloud, grain, and geometric spiral motifs.
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It stands on a trumpet-shaped high ring foot designed for stability.
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Hollow-out Recumbent-Looking-Back Golden Tiger
Warring
States (475–221 BCE), unearthed in Fengxiang County, Baoji, Shaanxi
Province in 1979.
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Golden Tiger
Warring States (475–221 BCE), unearthed in
Fengxiang County, Baoji, Shaanxi Province in 1979.
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Pottery Kneeling Figure
Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE), Xi'an
Museum Collection.
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Han pottery House-Shaped Barn
Used as a burial object.
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It features a distinctive lid styled like a roof, complete with molded
clay tiles.
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The vessel typically has painted decorations, such as red and white
stripes, applied to the main body.
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Such artifacts were meant to symbolize the wealth and high social
status of the deceased in the afterlife
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3. Convergence of Commanderies and Kingdoms, Convergence of Wealth and
Goods
The capital city is the center of transportation convergence across the
country. The fiefdoms of the Western Zhou and the counties of the Qin dynasty
had to pay tribute to the central government, and wealthy merchants and great
traders from all over the land gathered in the capital. After Qin unified the
empire, 120,000 wealthy households from across the land were relocated to
Xianyang, making the capital an economic center of wealth that surpassed all
others. Therefore, massive projects such as the Straight Road, Relaxed Road,
Epang Palace, and the First Emperor's Mausoleum were made feasible.»
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The formation of the centralized system of the Qin Dynasty
«In 221 BCE, Qin conquered the State of Qi, completing the
unification of China. It established the imperial system, the Three
Dukes and Nine Ministers system, and the prefecture-county system,
strengthening centralized power—a system inherited and developed by
later feudal dynasties.»
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Unified currency
«During the pre-Qin period, the monetary
system developed in an orderly manner, gradually unifying into four
systems: cloth coins, knife coins, round coins, and cowrie shell coins.
The main coinage of the Qin state was the round coin. After Qin Shi
Huang unified the country, he promulgated China's earliest monetary law
in 210 BCE: "Use Qin coins to unify the currency of the world," and the
round "Ban Liang" coin with a square hole circulated throughout the
country.»
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4. Axes, halberds, and spears, chariots and iron teams
«King Wu of
Zhou overthrew Zhou and destroyed Shang, and Qin Shi Huang unified China, all
relying on a powerful army. As the central hub of governance, the capital was
also a well-fortified military fortress. Frequent wars have produced a wide
variety of weapons and equipment, forming multiple tactics. During the Zhou
and Qin periods, chariot warfare was the main method, supplemented by
infantry. Most weapons at that time were made of bronze, and iron weapons
appeared during the Warring States period. From the various surviving weapons
and military equipment, one can understand the brutality of the war and
appreciate the hardships of founding the Zhou and Qin states.»
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«King Wuwang of Zhou Dynasty's overthrowing of the Shang Dynasty and the
First Qin Emperor's unifications of China were both dependent on a
powerful military. The capital was not only a ruling center but also has
a military fort with rigorous defenses. Frequent warfare gave birth to
diversified arts of war and a variety of weapons. Chariot battle was
predominant in the Zhou and Qin Dynasties, with infantry as the
supplement. Most weapons of the time were bronze. Iron weapons were
found as early as the Warring-states Period. The remains of the various
ancient weapons and war tools can help us to learn the cruelty of war
and the hardships of the establishment of the Zhou and Qin empires.»
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Bronze chariot and horse implements
«The Zhou Li (Rites of
Zhou) records in the Kao Gong Ji (Record of Trades): "The Zhou people
rewarded their craftsmen, so there were many chariots made from a single
piece of equipment." Chariots in the Western Zhou Dynasty could be used
for riding (riding), fighting (war chariots), or hunting (field
chariots).»
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Weapons
«The performance and variety of bronze weapons in
the Zhou Dynasty continued to evolve. With the rise of chariot warfare
from the Western Zhou to the Spring and Autumn Period, the combination
of chariot weapons became increasingly standardized and
institutionalized, including bows and arrows for long-range shooting,
halberds and spears for close combat, swords for body protection, and
protective gear such as shields and leather armor.»
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Gilded Bronze Ornament in Zoomorphic Shape with Incised Holes Inlaid
with Glass
Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE), unearthed in Weiyang District,
Xi'an in 1972.
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II. The Elegance of the Han and Tang Dynasties
1. Abundant Resources and Peace of the People
«During the Han and
Tang periods, the economy and culture developed rapidly, and the population of
the capital surged. Han Chang'an had 500,000 people, while Tang Chang'an
reached over a million. At this time, the palace buildings were even more
magnificent, and the prince's mansion became increasingly lavish. The nine
markets of Han Chang'an and the two eastern and western markets of Tang
Chang'an were bustling commercial centers. From the large number of pottery
warehouses, production tools, daily utensils, coins, and currency unearthed,
it is not difficult to see the prosperity of industries and the peaceful
living of the capital Chang'an.»
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Prosperity and Peacefulness of Han and Tang
«During the Han
and Tang Dynasties, the economy and culture were highly developed. With
500 thousand residents in the Han Chang'an city and more than a million
in Tang Chang'an city, the population of the capital grew dramatically.
The palace buildings of the time were more magnificent and the royal
residence more extravagant. The nine markets of Han Chang'an city and
the East and West Market of Tang Chang'an city were flourishing
commercial centers of the time. The prosperity of business and peace of
life in Chang'an can be easily seen from the abundant excavated relics
like the pottery storehouse of the livestock, production tools, living
appliances, and coins.»
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Matizijin (Horse Hoof Gold) and Linzhijin (Unicorn Hoof Gold)
«Horse Hoof Gold and Unicorn Hoof Gold are symbols of the
prosperity of the Han Empire and represent the epochal signs of Han
Dynasty civilization. The Book of Han: Annals of Emperor Wu records an
imperial edict from the second year of the Taishi era (95 BCE): "In the
past, when I performed suburban sacrifices to see the Supreme God, I
ascended Longshou in the west and obtained a white unicorn, which I
presented to the ancestral temple. A heavenly horse emerged from the
Wowa River, and gold was found on Mount Tai; thus, their old names
should be changed. Now, I hereby change the gold [currency] to [the
shape of] unicorn hoofs and horse hoofs to celebrate these auspicious
omens."»
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Han Dynasty Wadang
«During the Han Dynasty, roof tiles were
not only used in royal buildings, but also began to be widely used in
folk buildings. Western Han roof tiles were mostly cloud pattern tiles,
four-god tiles, and inscribed tiles, with the inscriptions ranging from
one to twelve characters. According to the content of the inscriptions,
they can be divided into several categories such as palace gardens,
government offices, ancestral halls and tombs, residences, auspicious
words, and records.»
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Blue Stone Mold of Spade Coins (Left)
Xin Dynasty (9-23 CE),
Xi'an Museum Collection.
Bronze Coin Mold (Right)
Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE),
Xi'an Museum Collection.
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Sancai Four-Lugged Ceramic Jar
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
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It is known for its distinctive dark glazed body adorned with splash
patterns of yellow, green, and white.
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The piece features four small handles, or "lugs," around the neck,
which are typical of jars from this era.
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Celadon Chicken-Head Teapot
Southern Qi (479-502 CE),
unearthed from the Southern Dynasties tomb in Daputang Village,
Lingshan, Qixia District, Nanjing in 2012.
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Three-color (sancai) Ceramic Plate Featuring a Baoxiang Flower
Patter
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
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It is a glazed earthenware piece, likely produced in the early 8th
century.
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The design was impressed into the clay before glazing, typical of Tang
sancai techniques.
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Amphora with Dished Mouth and Two Dragon Handles
Tang
Dynasty (618-907 CE).
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It is characterized by its distinctive "twin-dragon" handles that arch
from the neck to the shoulder.
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The piece typically features a dished mouth, sometimes described as a
"cup-shaped" mouth.
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These stoneware ceramics were commonly produced during the 7th and 8th
centuries for funerary purposes.
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Bronze Water Container
Han Dynasty, probably Western Han
(206 BCE – 9 CE) to Eastern Han (25 – 220 CE).
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Bronze Tripod Vessel
Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE).
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This antique bronze tripod vessel, known as a jiaodou, features
a distinctive handle shaped like a dragon head.
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These vessels were primarily used for cooking food or heating liquor.
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The vessel typically stands on three legs and has a long handle,
allowing it to be placed directly over a fire or hot coals.
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The Nine Tripods of the Xin-Mang
«After Wang Mang became
regent, he implemented a series of reforms to consolidate his rule.
Regarding the reform of the ritual system, he sought to follow the rites
of the Zhou Dynasty. The Book of Han: Biography of Wang Mang (Part I)
states: 'Now, in establishing rites and creating music, we have
carefully examined the Zhou system, which had five ranks of nobility and
four ranks of land, all clearly recorded. The Yin (Shang) Dynasty had
three ranks, which had oral descriptions but no written records.
Confucius said: "The Zhou dynasty drew upon the two preceding dynasties;
how rich and splendid its culture was! I follow the Zhou."'»
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Wang Mang’s obsession with the "Zhou Rites" (Zhouli) was a
calculated political move. By claiming to return to the idealized
administrative and ritual structures of the Zhou Dynasty—which he
believed were superior to those of the preceding Han Dynasty—he sought
to justify his usurpation of the throne.
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The Nine Tripods: Traditionally, the Nine Tripods were symbolic of the
Mandate of Heaven and the authority of the central ruler. By
commissioning or re-invoking these vessels, Wang Mang was signaling
that he held the divine right to rule.
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The Citation of Confucius: The text includes a famous quote attributed
to Confucius in the Analects (3:14). By using this quote, Wang Mang
was framing himself not as a rebel, but as a restorer of ancient,
virtuous governance.
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Collection of granaries and carts
Likely from the Han
Dynasty.
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The manor houses were the main living and production spaces of the
estate owners. They owned vast amounts of land, and their estates
encompassed agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishing. They
also engaged in certain handicraft production or trade in grain and
agricultural by-products, exhibiting a strong degree of
self-sufficiency.
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These artifacts were commonly placed in tombs to symbolize wealth and
ensure sustenance in the afterlife.
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Glazed Pottery Warehouse
Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE).
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This object is a classic example of a mingqi, or "spirit good,"
which were ceramic funerary items placed in ancient Chinese tombs to
provide the deceased with utility, comfort, and protection in the
afterlife.
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Specifically, this cylindrical vessel with a roof-like lid and molded
architectural details functions as a symbolic granary or storage jar.
These items were deeply rooted in the belief that the afterlife was a
continuation of one’s earthly existence, requiring the same
resources—such as food storage and household amenities—that sustained
a person while they were alive.
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The architectural features, such as the prominent roof structure and
the small, window-like opening, reflect the ancient Chinese practice
of recreating "underground homes" for the soul of the departed. By
including such miniature representations of granaries or buildings in
their burial assemblages, families hoped to ensure the prosperity and
security of the deceased. These vessels demonstrate not only the high
level of ceramic craftsmanship during this period but also provide
modern researchers with invaluable insights into the social customs,
architectural styles, and religious perspectives regarding death and
the soul that were prevalent in early imperial China.
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Miniature scene from daily life
This terracotta figurine is
another example of a mingqi, or "spirit object," specifically
designed as a miniature scene from daily life to accompany the deceased.
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It depicts a figure, possibly a domestic servant or cook, kneeling in
front of a hearth or stove. These types of figures were frequently
included in tomb assemblages from the Han Dynasty onwards to ensure
that the spirit of the departed would continue to be served and
nourished in the afterlife. By placing such a scene in the tomb,
families intended to recreate a functioning household environment,
guaranteeing that the deceased remained comfortable and well-provided
for perpetually.
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The simplicity and directness of this figurine provide a poignant
glimpse into the social hierarchy and domestic rituals of the era. The
figure is posed in a humble, utilitarian manner, emphasizing the
importance placed on service and domestic maintenance within the
ancient Chinese worldview. Beyond their function as grave goods, these
miniature vignettes serve as invaluable historical documents for
archaeologists, as they offer realistic depictions of ancient culinary
tools, clothing styles, and everyday postures that might not otherwise
have been preserved. They underscore a culture that viewed the
boundary between the living and the dead as porous, necessitating the
continuous support of those who had passed away.
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Green-glazed pottery pigsty with an integrated toilet
Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE).
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It is a funerary object (mingqi) intended to provide the
deceased with necessities for the afterlife, reflecting daily life on
a large estate.
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The structure features a toilet mounted above a pigpen, allowing pig
waste management and animal feeding to occur simultaneously.
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Ceramic Lamp
Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE).
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It is intricately decorated with multiple small figurines of birds,
mythical creatures, and possibly figures.
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The lamp features a tall, stacked pillar design leading up to a wider
basin at the top for oil.
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Gilded Bronze Zhong with Phoenix and Bird Motifs
Han
Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE), unearthed in Weiyang District, Xi'an City in
2003.
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Two of these vessels were unearthed, both identical in shape. The lid
features a central knob shaped like a phoenix, with the bird depicted
in a standing posture, head raised, tail curled, and holding a bead in
its beak. Its wings are spread, and the feathers are exquisitely
detailed and lifelike. The mouth of the vessel is slightly shrunken,
with a rounded shoulder and a bulging belly. On both sides of the
belly, there are bronze rings attached to animal-mask fixtures. The
base is slightly recessed inward. The mouth, shoulder, and belly are
decorated with raised, broad, band-like motifs.
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The entire body of the Zhong is gilded, appearing brilliant and
magnificent. Gilding is one of the ancient Chinese metalworking
crafts. In ancient times, it was called "fire-gilding." The process
involved dissolving gold in mercury to create a gold amalgam, applying
it to the surface of the copper or bronze vessel, and then heating it.
The mercury would evaporate, leaving the gold firmly adhered to the
surface. This is known as fire-gilding.
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This gilded bronze Zhong was unearthed from a large,
representative Western Han Dynasty tomb located at the end of the tomb
passage. In addition to the aforementioned gilded bronze Zhong,
the tomb contained 17 other bronze vessels including bronze
Lei (wine jars) and bronze Fu (cauldrons), as well as 5
pieces of jade-inlaid gold and 101 pieces of jade. Based on the form
of the tomb and the unearthed artifacts, this tomb belongs to the
period between the early Western Han Dynasty and the reign of Emperor
Wu of Han; it is a noble’s tomb. This bronze Zhong may have
been a piece of imperial or high-ranking ceremonial ware.
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Bronze vessel for brewing wine
Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE),
Yanta District, Xi'an in 2004.
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This vessel is in the shape of a bamboo tube, a unique vessel shape
from the Han Dynasty, used as a container for brewing wine.
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As a wine vessel, it should not have painted decorations inside.
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The painted patterns inside and on the bottom of the aforementioned
gilded bronze vessel were likely painted before it was buried with the
deceased.
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Gold ornaments
These exquisite gold ornaments on display at
the Xi'an Museum highlight the extraordinary level of metalworking
artistry achieved in ancient China.
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Crafted with meticulous detail, pieces like the gold dragon, phoenix,
tree, and duck serve as more than just decorative treasures; they are
potent symbols deeply embedded in Chinese cultural tradition. Each
motif carries specific auspicious meanings—the dragon represents
imperial power and strength, the phoenix signifies grace and high
virtue, and floral or animal designs often convey wishes for
longevity, harmony, and prosperity.
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Beyond their aesthetic brilliance, these items provide valuable
historical evidence of the social and economic prominence of gold in
elite burial assemblages. Gold was far more than a display of material
wealth; it was believed to offer spiritual protection and ensure the
status of the deceased in the afterlife. The sophisticated techniques
required to create such delicate, openwork gold ornaments demonstrate
the technical mastery of ancient artisans, who balanced intricate
artistic expression with the durable, lustrous nature of the material
to create lasting legacies of power and prestige.
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Terracotta figures
These terracotta figures represent a
fascinating evolution in funerary art, moving beyond the serene,
domestic scenes of the earlier Han Dynasty toward the dynamic,
militaristic displays common in later periods.
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The collection features a diverse array of characters, including
armored soldiers, mounted cavalry, and expressive attendant figures.
These mingqi were crafted to serve as a symbolic retinue for
the deceased, reflecting the high value placed on military power,
state administration, and the necessity of protection within the
social and political climate of the 4th century CE, as indicated by
the timeline displayed in the background.
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The craftsmanship of these pieces highlights the transition from
naturalistic, lifelike portrayals to more stylized, varied
representations that emphasize status and character. By capturing
soldiers in ready stances and attendants with distinct, animated
facial expressions, these figures offer a rare, tangible window into
the period's fashion, weaponry, and social hierarchy. Beyond their
decorative quality, they demonstrate the profound belief that one’s
earthly identity and security were essential to maintain in the
afterlife, ensuring that the deceased remained honored and prepared
for the challenges of eternity.
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2. Cultural Flourishing
«Civilization The Han and Tang capitals
flourished in civilization, with unprecedented flourishing in books, records,
poetry, songs, music, dance, calligraphy, and painting. The Tianlu Pavilion of
the Han dynasty and the Hongwen Hall of the Tang dynasty were not only places
for storing maps and archives, but also centers for academic research. The Han
Imperial Academy and the Tang Imperial Academy were official schools for
cultivating outstanding students, often with thousands of students enrolled.
The capital, Chang'an, is a hub of culture and culture. It is not only a
historical stage for virtuous ministers and capable generals to achieve both
civil and military achievements, but also a place where scholars, artists, and
skilled craftsmen from various regions showcase their talents and achieve
success. Tang Chang'an was also a major center for Buddhism and Taoism, with
numerous temples and sects flourishing within the city. Various pottery
figurines of people unearthed vividly recreate the image of the "Taiping
people of Chang'an."»
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Glorious Provincial Capital
«The city of Xi' an is an
important communication center of northwest and southwest China. It is
also a key city ensuring the stability of west China and maintaining the
security of the central plains of China. Thus, rulers of Song, Yuan,
Ming and Qing Dynasties attached high importance to the city. At the
time, there were forest of stores and restaurants on either side of the
streets, marking the prosperity of trade and commerce in those
dynasties. Important heritages such as the lofty City Wall, the Bell
Tower, Drum Tower, Forest of Stone Tablets, and Guanzhong Academy of
Classical Learning incarnate the profoundness of the city' s cultural
heritage.»
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«The Han and Tang Chang'an cities were civilized and prosperous, when
institutions, poetry, songs,music, dances, calligraphy and painting
flourished unprecedentedly. The Han Dynasty Tianluge Library and Tang
Dynasty Hongwenguan library both serve as archives and academic research
center. The Han Dynasty Taixue (state academy) and the Tang Dynasty
Guozijian (state academy) were official institutes training outstanding
students, where there were often around one thousand students. The
capital Chang'an gathered excellent persons from all over the country,
which was not only a stage for the generals and ministers,but also one
for the scholars, artists and craftsmen. Tang Chang'an city was also an
important place for Buddhism and Taoism, where Buddhist and Taoist
temples stood in great numbers, and various sects flourished. The
diverse pottery figurines unearthed vividly reproduced the scene of
"peace and tranquility of people living in Chang'an city".»
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Painted Pottery Jar in Stupa Shape
Tang Dynasty (618-907
CE), unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in 1998.
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Magnificence of Han and Tang Dynasties
«Han and Tang dynasties were the two peak social development periods in
ancient China. The Han Dynasty had the Rule of Emperors of Wen and Jing
and the Resurgence of Emperors of Zhao and Xuan, and the Tang Dynasty
had the Rule of Zhenguan and the Prosperous Era of Kaiyuan, during which
the national unity and the cultural prosperity made China the center of
the East. The opening of the Silk Road in the Western Han Dynasty was
the prelude to the cultural exchanges between China and the West. The
Tang Dynasty, with its attitude of inclusiveness, innovation and
development, absorbed more foreign civilizations and created the
brilliant prosperity.
Looking back on the glories of the Han and Tang Dynasties, we cannot but
be amazed by the enterprising power, vigorous spirit, and epic vision
they presented to the world.»
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Music and Dance
«The highly prosperous social economy provided a foundation for the
entertainment and cultural life of the people of Chang'an.
The open social atmosphere and the strong advocacy of the rulers
promoted the development of music, dance and various entertainments,
including music, dance, games, acrobatics, percussion, cuju (ancient
Chinese football), and gambling.»
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Painted Kneeling Female Musician (Left)
Western Han (202 BCE
- 8 CE), Collected in Xi'an.
Painted Kneeling Figure (Center)
Western Han (202 BCE - 8
CE), unearthed in Weiyang District, Xi'an.
Painted Kneeling Figure (Right)
Western Han (202 BCE - 8
CE), unearthed in Weiyang District, Xi'an.
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Painted Pottery Female with Cupped Hands (Left)
Sixteen
States Period (304-439 CE), Handed over by Xi'an Public Security Bureau
in 2004.
Painted Pottery Female with Cupped Hands (Right)
Sixteen
States Period (304-439 CE), Handed over by Xi'an Public Security Bureau
in 2004.
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Painted Pottery Female
Sixteen States Period (304-439 CE),
Handed over by Xi'an Public Security Bureau in 2004.
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Painted Kneeling Female Musician (Left)
Sixteen States
Period (304-439 CE), Handed over by Xi'an Public Security Bureau in
2012.
Painted Kneeling Female Musician (Center)
Sixteen States
Period (304-439 CE), Handed over by Xi'an Public Security Bureau in
2004.
Painted Kneeling Female Playing Chinese Zither (Right)
Sixteen States Period (304-439 CE), Handed over by Xi'an Public
Security Bureau in 2004.
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Bathing Boys
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), unearthed in
Hansenzhai in Xi'an.
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Yellow-Glazed Figure Playing Panpipe on Horseback (Left)
Sui
Dynasty-Early Tang Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District,
Xi'an in 1985.
Yellow-Glazed Female on Horseback (Center)
Sui Dynasty-Early
Tang Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in
1985.
Yellow-Glazed Figure on Horseback (Right)
Sui Dynasty-Early
Tang Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in
1985.
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Yellow-Glazed Figure Playing Music on Horseback (Left)
Sui
Dynasty-Early Tang Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District,
Xi'an in 1985.
Yellow-Glazed Dwarf Figure (Right)
Sui Dynasty-Early Tang
Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in 1985.
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Yellow-Glazed Female Figure Playing a Reed Pipe Wind Instrument
(Left)
Sui Dynasty-Early Tang Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in
Chang'an District, Xi'an in 1985.
Yellow-Glazed Female Dancer (Center)
Sui Dynasty-Early Tang
Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in 1985.
Yellow-Glazed Female Playing Panpipe (Right)
Sui
Dynasty-Early Tang Dynasty (581-712 CE), unearthed in Chang'an District,
Xi'an in 1985.
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Gilded Bronze Standing Bodhisattva with Halo
Sui Dynasty
(581-618 CE), unearthed in Welyang District, Xi'an in 1978.
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Gilded Bronze "Three Saints of the West"
Tang Dynasty
(618-907 CE), unearthed in Lianhu District, Xi'an in 1977.
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Aesthetics of the Tang Dynasty
«Chang'an was home to many
prominent figures and dignitaries. As the saying goes, "the east is
rich, the west is wealthy," and all aesthetic standards originated from
the clothing, makeup, food, travel, and entertainment of the upper
class, then quickly spread throughout the country, leading trends.
Pictures of ladies with hairpins.»
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3. The Starting Point of the "Silk Road"
«Since Zhang Qian's
mission to the Western Regions during Emperor Wu of Han's reign, the "Silk
Road" starting from Chang'an was established. By the Tang dynasty, a new
situation had been established, with smooth land routes and busy sea routes,
making the capital Chang'an the world's Eastern international metropolis. The
imperial court had a dedicated institution to manage foreign affairs. Foreign
envoys, international students, merchants, and monks gathered here, and
shrines were built in Chang'an, where places like Zoroastrianism,
Nestorianism, and Manichaeism were established, and Hu music and clothing
became popular throughout the city. The introduction of rare treasures from
the Western Regions, grapes and alfalfa, and many new species, as well as
music, dance, and acrobatic performances, greatly enriched the city's material
and cultural life, injecting new vitality into Chang'an.»
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Starting Point of the "Silk Road"
«With complete ruling
institutions, the capital city was the political center of the country,
which was dominated by the royal family and aristocrats. The majestic
palace architecture and city-defending facilities, such as high walls
and a deep moat, have all been used to make the supreme status of the
emperor conspicuous. The exquisite bronze wares have reproduced the
extravagant life led by the royal families and the aristocrats; the huge
tombs with chariots, horses and servants buried alive reflected the
pursuit of future life enjoyment. From the tall mausoleum of the First
Qin Emperor to the mighty and sturdy terra-cotta warriors and horses, it
is not difficult to imagine the magnificent verve of the Qin Dynasty
after its unification.»
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Blue-Glazed Mule with Load
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE),
unearthed in Lianhu District, Xi'an in 1966.
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Tricolor Foreign Military Officer
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE),
unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in 2002.
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Painted Pottery Foreign Horse (Camel) Attendant (Left)
Tang
Dynasty (618-907 CE).
Painted Pottery Foreign Horse (Camel) Attendant (Right)
Tang
Dynasty (618-907 CE).
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Tricolor Galloping Horse
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE),
unearthed in Lianhu District, Xi'an in 1955.
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4. Royal Mausoleums and Towers
«According to research, sixty-five
emperors (including feudal lords) were buried in Shaanxi, most concentrated in
the Xi'an area, and the number of royal family members is even more numerous.
Outside the Han and Tang capitals, the Eleven Western Han Tombs and the
Eighteen Tang Tombs are grand and spectacular, with endless accompanying
burial mounds. The custom of lavish burials at the time can be seen in the
exquisite burial vessels unearthed from the Han and Tang tombs near Xi'an.
Painted pottery figurines such as musician figurines and hunting figurines
unearthed from the main tomb in Jinxiang County of the Tang dynasty recreate
scenes of Tang dynasty aristocratic life.»
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Royal Mausoleums
«According to research, the number of
ancient emperors and kings (including the princes) buried in Shaanxi
amounts to 65. Most of these kings' and vassals' mausoleums are located
in the circumferences around Xi' an. There are an even greater number of
tombs of royal family members. The 11 mausoleums of the Han Dynasty and
18 mausoleums of the Tang Dynasty on the outskirts of both the Han and
Tang Dynasty's Chang' an city are grand and spectacular with countless
tombs winding around as sacrifice. The trend of luxurious funerals can
be seen partly from the exquisite objects unearthed from the Han and
Tang mausoleums in suburbs of Xi'an.»
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Imperial Tomb Figurines
«The basic function of funerary
figurines was to replace human sacrifices and "serve" the deceased.
During the Han Dynasty, the functions of funerary figurines evolved to
be more complex and diverse. The Han rulers' desire for immortality and
eternal life led them to commission the creation of realistic and
lifelike funerary figurines, pursuing their immense scale and pioneering
new functions in creating scenes and constructing a real world. For the
deceased, "soldiers lined up to send them off" was a political honor,
recognizing the achievements of the tomb owner and showcasing their
prestige during their lifetime.»
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Painted Pottery Infantry Soldiers
Western Han (202 BCE - 8
CE), unearthed in Burial Pits of Empress Lyu's Tomb, Baqiao District,
Xi'an in 2003.
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Tang Dynasty Tomb Beasts
«Tomb guardian beasts are the
protectors of the tomb owner, warding off evil spirits and protecting
the soul from disturbance and invasion, as well as driving away
malevolent forces. Tomb guardian beasts can be depicted in written form
or with human faces.»
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Tomb Terracotta Protectors
The tradition of placing
terracotta warriors inside tombs, most notably within the massive
mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang in the Xi'an region, served to protect the
deceased in the afterlife by recreating their earthly military and
administrative power.
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These figures, which include infantry, cavalry, archers, and
charioteers, were crafted with remarkable individuality, featuring
unique facial expressions, hairstyles, and armor details that suggest
they were modeled after actual soldiers of the Qin army. The primary
purpose of this funerary art was to provide the emperor with an
eternal spiritual guard, reflecting the belief that the afterlife was
an extension of one's status and authority in the mortal world.
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At the Xi'an Museum, visitors can view a curated collection of these
terracotta figures, which are presented to provide a detailed look at
the craftsmanship and historical significance of Qin-era burial
customs. These exhibits allow for a close-up examination of the
distinct features of the soldiers, illustrating how they were
mass-produced using assembly-line techniques while being finished with
specialized, artistic details. By highlighting these specific
protectors, the museum helps contextualize the broader phenomenon of
"spirit army" burials, demonstrating how these terracotta guardians
were essential components of the elaborate tomb architecture designed
to ensure the eternal security of China's earliest imperial rulers.
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Tricolor Warrior Figurine
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE),
unearthed in Baqiao District, Xi'an in 1985.
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Tricolor Guardian Figurine (Left)
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE),
unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in 2002.
Tricolor Guardian Figurine (Right)
Tang Dynasty (618-907
CE), unearthed in Chang'an District, Xi'an in 2002.
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Yuan Dynasty Pottery Figurines from Guanzhong
«The Yuan
Dynasty pottery figurines from Guanzhong were mainly unearthed from the
tombs of Han Chinese officials and small and medium-sized landowners.
They are primarily made of gray pottery and are often found alongside
furniture and livestock models. Types include tomb guardian figurines,
standing male and female figurines, horse-leading figurines,
camel-riding figurines, camel-leading figurines, chariot and horse
figurines, and animal figurines, among others. The figurines are
realistic in style, and their faces all exhibit Mongolian
characteristics, reflecting the Mongolization of hairstyles and clothing
among various ethnic groups in the Guanzhong region during the Yuan
Dynasty.»
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Northwest Important Town
«From the Song Dynasty to the early
Yuan Dynasty, Xi'an City retained the Tang Dynasty name "Jingzhao,"
which specifically referred to the capital. As the military command
center of the west, Jingzhao Prefecture was impregnable. The rich and
varied artifacts unearthed, including porcelain, pottery figurines, and
chariots, testify to the former prosperity of Jingzhao Prefecture.»
01 Painted Pottery Figure in Black Official Hat
Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644), unearthed from the Tomb of Qianyang Lord of the Ming
Dynasty, Yanta District, Xi'an in 1999.
02 Painted Pottery Figure in Bamboo Hat
Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644), unearthed from the Tomb of Qianyang Lord of the Ming
Dynasty, Yanta District, Xi'an in 1999.
03 Painted Pottery Figures Leading a Horse
Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644), unearthed from the Tomb of Qianyang Lord of the Ming
Dynasty, Yanta District, Xi'an in 1999.
04 Painted Pottery Figure on Horseback
Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644), unearthed from the Tomb of Qianyang Lord of the Ming
Dynasty, Yanta District, Xi'an in 1999.
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Charm of Buddhism in Chang'an
The exhibition titled "Charm
of Buddhism in Chang'an" at the Xi'an Museum offers a profound look into
the religious artistry of the Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581 CE), a
pivotal era for the development of Buddhist sculpture in China.
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The collection is particularly celebrated for its distinct aesthetic,
which departed from the elongated, slender forms of the preceding
Northern Wei style. Instead, these statues are characterized by a
sense of calm monumentality, featuring noticeably plump, rounded faces
and softer, more naturalistic facial expressions that convey a serene
benevolence.
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A defining technical detail of these artifacts is the treatment of the
ushnisha, or the cranial protuberance symbolizing Buddha's
enlightenment. Unlike other periods that preferred more pronounced or
curled hair patterns, these sculptures often exhibit remarkably flat
ushnishas, which contribute to the overall meditative and dignified
silhouette of the figures. These stylistic choices reflect the
cultural synthesis and religious fervor of the ancient capital of
Chang'an, providing modern viewers with an essential link to the
evolution of Buddhist iconography as it transitioned into the more
ornate styles of the later Sui and Tang dynasties.
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Conclusion
«The ancient capital of China, a land of outstanding
people and blessed land. Its superior geographical environment and profound
historical heritage have made Xi'an a world-renowned ancient capital of
thirteen dynasties, with page after page recording the dramatic changes of the
Chinese nation and bearing witness to the rise of Chinese civilization. Though
history has passed, the spirit and strength gathered on this land Cultural
heritage are our eternal treasures. Appreciating, absorbing, inheriting, and
pioneering these outstanding traditional cultures is our duty and
responsibility.»
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Epilogue
«The ancient capital of China has produced
outstanding people. With its superior geographical environment and
profound historical heritage, Xi'an has become a world-famous ancient
capital of 13 dynasties, recording the vicissitudes of the Chinese
nation and witnessing the rise of Chinese civilization. Despite the
passing history, the cultural relics of spirit and substance condensed
on this land are our eternal wealth. It is our obligation and
responsibility to appreciate, absorb, inherit and develop these
excellent traditional cultures.»
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See Also
Source
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