The Shanghai Museum, located in the heart of People’s Square, is one of
China’s most prestigious institutions, housing a vast collection of over
120,000 historical artifacts.
Established in 1952 and relocated to its iconic current building in 1996, the
museum’s architecture is uniquely designed to reflect the ancient Chinese
concept of "round sky, square earth," with a circular top and a square base.
This shape is also said to be inspired by the ding, a traditional
bronze cauldron used for ritual offerings, which serves as a fitting symbol
for the treasures held within its five floors of exhibition space.
The museum is particularly renowned for its Bronze Gallery, which is
considered one of the finest and most comprehensive collections of ancient
Chinese bronze in the world. Spanning over 1,500 years of history, the gallery
showcases the evolution of bronze art from the Xia and Shang dynasties through
the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn, and Warring States periods. Visitors can
explore hundreds of artifacts, including intricate ritual vessels, weapons,
and musical instruments, all of which highlight the superb casting techniques
and complex decorative motifs that characterized early Chinese civilization
and the profound social significance of ritual bronzes in ancient state power.
Initial Stage
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Initial Stage
Xia (21st-16th century BCE).
«Around the 21st century BCE, China entered the Bronze Age. Small
bronzes were found in the Taosi site in Shanxi province and the Shimao
site in Shaanxi province. In the Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan province,
archaeologists discovered bronze containers, musical instruments,
weapons, tools, and ornaments, as well as sites of bronze casting
foundries. The Erlitou Culture in the late period (18th-16th century
BCE) of the Xia dynasty was comparatively a mature bronze culture in
China.
In this period, the bronze vessels were evenly shaped with thin wall and
decorated with simple designs. The piece-mold casting became
sophisticated. Patterns of animal mask and turquoise inlays appeared.
Bronzes possessed ritual value, marking the beginning of a civilized
society in China.»
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Yue (axe) inlaid with crosses
Late Xia (18th-16th
century BCE).
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Yue is a type of weapon for chopping. It first appeared in the late
Xia and was still used till the Warring States period. Mostly serving
as a ceremonial tool, it symbolized royal authority.
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Formative Stage
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Formative Stage
Early and Middle Shang (16th-13th century
BCE).
«This was a critical period for the evolvement of Chinese bronze art.
The system of ritual vessels was established chiefly based on the use of
wine vessels in combination. Bronze weapons increased in variety. The
animal-mask motif decorated most of the bronzes in a dense and complex
composition. The patterns were executed with bold, deeply-cut linear
elements. Inscriptions with one character began to appear. The
application of separate casting became more proficient. Techniques of
making and combining molds made considerable progress. Bronzes from this
time have been unearthed along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The period
laid the foundation for the prosperity of ancient Chinese bronze art.»
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Patterns of Formative Stage
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Bronze plaque and Ling (bell)
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Bronze plaque was a kind of adornment for wearing and used in
combination with ling bell.
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Ling (bell) is the earliest bronze musical instrument. They
appeared in the late Xia in China. Archaeological discoveries indicate
they were used in combination with bronzes such as plaques with inlays
of animal mask pattern.
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Gu (vessel)
Gu is a type of ritual vessel for
catching libations poured during guanli (worship ceremony). It
appeared in the early Shang and thrived through the dynasty.
Gu was an essential type of ritual bronzes of the Shang dynasty.
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Wine Vessel
The early and middle Shang witnessed a marked
increase in the types of bronze wine vessels. Besides the early types
jue and jia, new forms of vessels came into being,
including gu, zun, hu, bu, lei. The ritual set consisting of
jue, gu, and jia vessels took form, reflecting that the
prototype of a sacrificial system with an emphasis on alcohol came into
being in the Shang dynasty.
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Jia and Jue (vessel)
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Jia, a vessel for guanli (worship ceremony), is for
holding or warming the alcohol. It appeared in the late Xia and
thrived in the Shang dynasty and the early Western Zhou.
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Jue is a type of ritual vessel for holding and pouring
libations during guanli (worship ceremony). As one of the
earliest known bronze containers, it originated from the late Xia and
thrived during the Shang dynasty. It is an essential type of ritual
bronzes of the Shang dynasty.
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Jia (wine vessel) with animal mask pattern
Mid-Shang
(mid-15th-13th century BCE).
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Jia Hu (wine vessel)
Mid-Shang (mid-15th-13th century
BCE).
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Jia Hu (wine vessel)
Mid-Shang (mid-15th-13th century
BCE).
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Food Vessel
«In the early and middle Shang dynasty, the
variety of food vessels increased. In addition to the round
ding (tripod cauldron), new types emerged, such as square
ding, li, yan, and qui. However, their quantity was
much more modest, in comparison with that of wine vessels. The dual
handles and three legs of ding and li were not yet symmetrical,
indicating that the casting technology was still developing.»
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Ding (food vessel) with cloud pattern
Early Shang
(16th-mid-15th century BCE).
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Ding is a type of cooking vessel serving food on occasions such
as sacrificial ceremony and banquets. It could be used to warm and
cook food. It is the type of ritual bronze used for the longest time.
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Li (food vessel) with animal mask pattern
Mid-Shang
(mid-15th-13th century BCE).
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Li is a type of cooking vessel with function and way of use
similar to that of ding. It first appeared in the early Shang
and thrived from the middle Western Zhou till the Warring States
period.
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Mature Stage
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Mature Stage
Late Shang and Early Western Zhou (13th-11th
century BCE).
«The period from the late Shang to the early Western Zhou witnessed the
zenith of Chinese bronze art. In the Shang dynasty, the system of ritual
vessels with an emphasis on drinking vessels reached perfection. Wine
vessels achieved a rich variety and an appreciable quantity. Animal
motifs such as animal mask, dragon, and phoenix were unprecedentedly
sophisticated. These imposing and vigorous patterns were delicately
crafted in a mixed manner of relief, high relief and intaglio. Most
bronzes bear inscriptions that identify families and ancestors. In the
late Shang period, inscriptions recording events emerged. In the early
Zhou, some ritual practices of the Shang dynasty remained, but the
ritual system shifted the emphasis from drinks to food. In this period,
inscriptions on bronzes grew longer.»
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Zun (wine vessel) with ox heads and animal mask
Late
Shang (13th century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Zun (wine vessel) with ox heads and animal mask pattern
Late Shang (13th century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Ya Fu Square Lei (wine vessel)
Late Shang (13th
century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Lei (wine vessel) with animal mask pattern
Late Shang
(13th century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Lei is a type of large wine container popular in the late Shang
till the middle Western Zhou.
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Yue Fu You (wine vessel)
Late Shang (13th century-the
beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Wine Vessel
The late Shang saw a rather complete picture of
wine vessels. New vessels such as zhi, you, gong, fangyi, and
he appeared. A remarkable variety of forms emerged, including
animal-shaped you, zun and gong. The most common set of
ritual vessels are such pairs as jue and gu or
jiao and gu. In the early Western Zhou, the popularity of
wine vessel declined.
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Wu Fu Yi Gong (wine vessel)
Early Western Zhou (11th
century BCE).
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Gong is a type of wine container that thrived in the late Shang
till the middle Western Zhou.
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Bu (wine vessel) with four ram heads
Late Shang (13th
century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Xiao Chen Xi You (wine vessel)
Late Shang (13th
century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Hu (wine container)
Hu is a type of wine
container. It first appeared in the middle Shang and thrived for a
rather long time.
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De Ding (food vessel)
Reign of King Cheng (the first
half of 11th century BCE). Western Zhou. Gift of Mr. Chen Xianglu and
Mr. Wang Jingzhi.
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He (water vessel)
He is a type of bronze
vessel for pouring water. In ancient China, water was regarded as
Xuanjiu (divine alcohol) and was often mixed with alcohol. Besides, He
vessel could be used for washing hand. It first appeared in the late Xia
dynasty and thrived till the Han dynasty.
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Food Vessel
In the late Shang, food vessels increased in
numbers and new types emerged, such as yu and dou. In the
early Western Zhou, food vessels began to dominate. The
gui vessel with a square base became one of iconic artifacts of
the Zhou culture. The Western Zhou established a political system and
religious rituals that were different from the Shang dynasty. A ritual
system that valued food vessels was set up.
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Flat-legged Ding (food vessel) with dragon pattern
Late Shang (13th century-the beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Ren Gui (food vessel)
Early Western Zhou (11th
century BCE).
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Jia Gui (food vessel)
Early Western Zhou (11th
century BCE). Gift of Ms. Song Jingwen and Mr. Tang Zugu.
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E Shu Gui (food vessel)
Early Western Zhou (11th
century BCE).
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Yan (steamer)
Yan is a type of steamer
composed of the upper part called zeng (steam pot) and the lower
part called li (container for water). Grains could be put in
zeng and water in li. A grate pan inside separates
zeng and li. Yan first appeared in the middle Shang
and was still used till the late Warring States period.
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Dou (food container) (left)
Dou is a
type of food container for serving condiments such as pickles, meat
sauce, or cooked grain such as millet. It first appeared in the late
Shang and was used for a rather long period of time in history.
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Gui (food container) (right)
Gui is a
type of food container for serving cooked grain such as millet, rice,
and sorghum. It first appeared in the early Shang and was used for a
rather long time.
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E Shu Gui (food vessel)
Early Western Zhou (11th
century BCE).
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Mu Gui Yan (steamer)
Early Western Zhou (11th century
BCE). Gift of Ms. Song Jingwen and Mr. Tang Zugu.
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Fu Yi Yu (food vessel)
Late Shang (13th century-the
beginning of 11th century BCE).
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Fue (axe) with elephant head and animal pattern
(left)
Early Western Zhou (11th century BCE).
Yue (weapon) with dragon head (right)
Early
Western Zhou (11th century BCE).
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Musical Instrument
The late Shang began to see an increase
in the variety of bronze musical instruments. Nao bells usually
appeared in groups of three or five arranged according to their notes.
Nao bells were the prelude to the bianzhong (chime bells)
and the perfection of the rites and music system of the early Western
period. Bronze musical instruments from areas beyond the Central Plains
show distinctive regional characteristics.
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Nao (bell)
Nao is the earliest bronze
percussion in China. The small-sized type thrived in the late Shang and
the early Western Zhou while the large type was popular in the Wu and
Yue regions during the Spring and Autumn period.
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Qing (percussion instrument)
Qing is a type of
percussion instrument, normally made of stone. Bronze qing first
appeared in the late Shang.
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Weapon
The late Shang saw a significant development of
bronze weapons. The yue (axe) symbolized authority and was
frequently used for ceremonial purposes. Ge (dagger-axe) and
mao (spear) were once the primary weapons. In the early Western
Zhou dynasty, a growing number of chariots frequently joined in wars.
The quantity of mao declined because they were unsuitable to be
used on chariots in warfare. Jian (sword) and dao (knife)
adorned with animal motifs were popular in the steppe regions in the
north.
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Dao (knife)
Dao is a type of weapon for
chopping. In the Central Plains, it was primarily used as ceremonial
instruments. In the steppe region it served as a practical portable
weapon. Dao was used and enjoyed popularity for a long time.
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Ge (dagger-axe) (left)
Ge is a type of
weapon for hooking and striking. It would be installed on a shaft.
Ge first appeared in the late Xia and was used until the Warring
States period.
Mao (spear) (right)
Mao is a type of
weapon for thrusting. The spearhead can be installed with a long shaft
on its lower hollow end called qiong (socket). Mao first
appeared in the early Shang and was used until the Warring States
period.
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Middle Western Zhou Stage
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Middle Western Zhou Stage
The Middle Western Zhou period,
spanning approximately the 10th to the 9th centuries BCE, represents a
deliberate stylistic shift away from the intense, zoomorphic complexity
of the Shang and early Western Zhou eras toward a more restrained and
rhythmic aesthetic.
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During this time, the iconic taotie mask, which had dominated
the surface decoration of bronzes for centuries, was gradually
abstracted into stylized, repetitive patterns such as the ring-band,
wavy line, and scale motifs. This evolution reflects a broader
transformation in the social and political landscape, as the Zhou
aristocracy increasingly prioritized order and standardized ritual
conduct over the aggressive, spirit-evoking imagery of their
predecessors. The result was a newfound sense of elegance and balance,
where the visual impact of the vessels relied on fluid, consistent
decorative rhythms rather than stark, intimidating relief work.
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Beyond the changes in ornamentation, this stage is characterized by
the monumental development of bronze inscriptions. While earlier
inscriptions were often brief, serving primarily to identify
ancestors, Middle Western Zhou bronzes began to feature significantly
longer, more complex texts that recorded royal administrative actions,
land grants, treaties, and legal proceedings. This shift transformed
the bronze vessel into a crucial instrument of political legitimation
and historical memory, anchoring the identity of the noble lineage
within the written record. By standardizing both the vessel forms and
the accompanying epigraphic traditions, the Middle Western Zhou period
established a sophisticated foundation for the ritual system that
would define the subsequent centuries of Chinese intellectual and
artistic history.
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Food Vessel
The middle Western Zhou saw a gradual increase
in the types and quantity of food vessels. The practice of grouping
ritual food vessels moved towards perfection. News types were invented,
including xu, pu, pen, fu. The system of ritual vessels featured
by ding ensembles was established. Since the late Western Zhou,
vessels like ding and gui were shaped in a more stylized
manner.
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Bo He (water vessel) (left)
Mid-Western Zhou
(the end of 11th century-the end of 10th century BCE).
Bo Pan (water vessel) (right)
Mid-Western Zhou
(the end of 11th century-the end of 10th century BCE).
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Zhong Yi Fu Ling (wine vessel)
Mid-to-late Western
Zhou (the end of 11th century-771 BCE). Unearthed in Renjia village,
Famen town, Fufeng county, Shaanxi province, late 1880s.
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Ling is a type of large wine container and first appeared in
the middle Western Zhou. It thrived in the late Western Zhou till the
late Spring and Autumn period.
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Zun (wine vessel) with dragon-shaped handles
Early
Spring and Autumn (770-the first half of 7th century BCE).
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Wine Vessel
Since the middle Western Zhou, the variety and
quantity of wine vessels sharply decreased. The fall was resulted from
the practice that the Zhou dynasty gradually changed the wine-centric
system of rites of the Shang dynasty. Ling appeared as a new type
of large ceremonial wine container. Jue with a long handle was a
new type of vessel used in guanli (worship ceremony). Although
the royal court of the Western Zhou strictly prohibited excessive
drinking, wine remained an indispensable sacrificial offering on
ceremonial occasions.
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Hu (wine vessel) with dragon pattern (left)
Late Western Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
Unearthed in Xiqin village. Baoji county, Shaanxi province, 1994.
Rui Bo Hu (wine Vessel) (right)
Late Western
Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
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Guo Jiang Square Hu (wine vessel) (left)
Late
Western Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
Square Hu (wine vessel) with dragon pattern (right)
Early Spring and Autumn (770-the first half of 7th century BCE).
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Fu Xin You (wine vessel) (left)
Mid-Western
Zhou (the end of 11th century-the end of 10th century BCE).
Mao You (wine vessel) (center)
Shang and early
Western Zhou dynasties (c. 1600–771 BCE).
Gong Zun (wine vessel) (right)
Mid-Western
Zhou (the end of 11th century-the end of 10th century BCE).
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Rui Bo Hu (Wine Vessel) (left)
Late Western
Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
Hu (wine vessel) with dragon pattern (right)
Late Western Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
Unearthed in Xiqin village, Baoji county, Shaanxi province, 1994.
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Bo Yu (food vessel)
Mid-Western Zhou (the end of 11th
century-the end of 10th century BCE).
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Yu is a type of large food container, sometimes for containing
water or ice. It first appeared in the late Shang and was popular
during the Western Zhou dynasty.
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Shi Huan Gui (food vessel) (left)
Reign of
King Xuan (827-782 BCE), Western Zhou.
Hu Gui (food vessel) (center)
Late Western
Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
Peng Sheng Gui (food vessel) (right)
Reign of
King Gong (mid-10th century BCE), Western Zhou.
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Xu (food vessel)
Xu is a type of food
container for serving cooked grain such as millet, rice and sorghum. It
first appeared in the middle Western Zhou and thrived in the late
Western Zhou.
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Pen (food and water container) (left)
Pen
is a type of container for food and sometimes for water. It first
appeared in the middle Western Zhou and was popular in the mid-to-late
Spring and Autumn period.
Fu (cooked grain container) (center)
Fu
is a type of food container for serving cooked grain such as millet,
rice and sorghum. It first appeared in the early Western Zhou and
thrived in the late Western Zhou till the Warring States period.
Pu (dried fruits or meat container) (right)
Pu
is a type of food container for serving dried fruits or meat. It was
popular in the middle Western Zhou till the late Spring and Autumn
period.
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Fu (vessel for cooking food)
Fu is a type of
vessel for cooking food. It was mainly used in the steppe area in the
north.
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Musical Instrument
The Zhou people had a full awareness of
social function of music. They attached equal value to rites and music.
As an organic part of the rites and music system,
bianzhong (chime bells) became the central core of the
combination of musical instruments regulated by hierarchical norms for
their use.
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Bo is a type of large percussion instrument. It first appeared
in the late Shang and was used for a long time.
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Zhong
Zhong, a percussion instrument, has two types according to
the shape of the top part: yongzhong and niuzhong.
Zhong first appeared in the early Western Zhou and thrived for a
long time. The cross section of the body is oblate. According to the
principles of vibration, hitting on the centre and sides can produce two
different frequencies of sound. Thus, it is known as bells with two
notes.
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Zhong (musical instrument) with dragon pattern
Late Western
Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE).
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Transitional Stage
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Patterns of Transitional Stage
The Transitional Stage of
Chinese bronze vessels, occurring roughly between the late 8th century
BCE and the early 5th century BCE, marks a pivotal shift from the rigid,
ritualistic standards of the Western Zhou period to the more diverse and
expressive styles of the Warring States period.
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During this era, the centralized authority of the Zhou court began to
wane, leading to the rise of independent regional states. This
decentralization encouraged artistic innovation, as craftsmen were no
longer strictly bound by the uniform decorative programs—such as the
iconic taotie masks—that had previously defined elite ritual
vessels. Consequently, vessel forms began to shed their heavy,
canonical appearance, gradually evolving toward more slender, elegant,
and functionally varied silhouettes that better suited the
increasingly secularized tastes of the nobility.
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Technically, this period served as the crucible for sophisticated
craftsmanship, characterized by the emergence of intricate interlace
patterns, fluid rhythmic designs, and the gradual introduction of
inlay techniques. As the focus shifted from purely ancestral worship
to the display of prestige and personal status, bronzes began to
incorporate more dynamic motifs, including serpentine dragons and
complex geometric grids that covered the entire surface of the metal.
This transition was not merely aesthetic; it signaled a transformation
in the role of bronzes in society, where the vessel’s utility and
decorative brilliance began to rival its traditional function as a
sacred object. By the end of this stage, the stage was set for the
highly refined, mass-produced, and technically masterful bronzes that
would define the later stages of the Zhou Dynasty.
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Hu (wine vessel) with petal lid and dragon pattern
Mid-Spring and Autumn (the first half of 7th century-the first
half of 6th century BCE).
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Hu (wine vessel) with dragon pattern
Early Warring
States (475-mid-4th century BCE). Gift of Mr. Leon Black and Mrs. Black.
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Drum Stand with interlaced dragons
Late Spring and Autumn
(the first half of 6th century-476 BCE).
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Ox-shaped Zun (wine vessel)
Late Spring and Autumn
(the first half of 6th century-476 BCE). Unearthed in Liyu village,
Hunyuan county, Shanxi province, 1923.
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States in the Central Plains
The Central Plains region with
the Yellow River Basin as the centre comprises from east to west such
vassal states as Qi, Lu, Yan, Wei, Zheng, Jin, and Qin. Each state
developed their own bronze casting industry, producing bronzes in
distinctive styles. Among archaeological findings, the Houma Bronze
Foundry in Shanxi province is the most representative site in this
region.
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Dui (cooked grain container)
Dui is a type of
food container for serving cooked grain such as millet, rice and
sorghum. It first appeared in the middle Spring and Autumn period and
was popular in the late Spring and Autumn to the Warring States periods.
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Pi (weapon)
Pi is a weapon for close combat.
It can be mounted on a long stick. Pi first appeared in the Shang
dynasty and was still used in the Warring States period.
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Pan (water vessel) of Zi Zhong Jiang
Early Spring and
Autumn (770-the first half of 7th century BCE). Gift of Mr. Sunny Yip.
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Yi (water vessel) of Marquis of Qi
Late Western Zhou
(the first half of 9th century-771 BCE). Gift of Mr. Gu Liu, Ms. Shen
Tongyue et al.
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Yi served to pour water. It first appeared in the middle
Western Zhou, and was popular in the late Western Zhou till the
Warring States period.
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Renewal Stage
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Renewal Stage
Middle Spring and Autumn Period, Late Spring
and Autumn Period, Warring States Period (the first half of 7th
century-221 BCE).
«From the middle Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period,
the Chinese bronze art enjoyed a second flowering. The bronzes made in
vassal states developed towards maturity with distinctive regional
characteristics. Regional bronzes complemented each other, including
those made in states of Qin, Jin, Qi, Lu, Yan in the Central Plains, the
State of Chu in the south, states of Wu and Yue in the southeast, Ba and
Shu in the southwest and the northern steppe. Bronzes tended to be more
practical. The ritual function declined. Intricate patterns and
innovative designs appeared more than before. Dragon-themed motifs were
crafted in a detailed and dense manner. Scenes of human activities
emerged as the main motif for the first time. Characters in inscriptions
focused on aesthetic appeal. The methods of lost-wax and pattern blocks
were applied in the casting process. Delicate inlays showcased superb
craftsmanship in this period.»
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Patterns of Renewal Stage
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Bo (percussion instrument) with coiled dragon pattern
Mid-Spring and Autumn (the first half of 7th century-the first
half of 6th century BCE).
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Guanfon (water vessel) with geometric pattern (left)
Early Warring States (475-mid-4th century BCE).
Square Hu (wine vessel) with inlays of geometric pattern
(center)
Late Warring States (mid-4th century-221 BCE).
Bo You Fu Ling (wine vessel) (right)
Mid
Spring and Autumn Period.
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The State of Chu
The State of Chu was located in the middle
reaches of the Yangtze River. During the Spring and Autumn till the
Warring States period, it prospered with the ever-expanding and
ultimately vastest territory among the vassal states. In its early
stages, the bronze culture of Chu was under a profound influence of the
bronze art of the Zhou dynasty. However, by the middle Spring and Autumn
period, Chu developed its own style, featuring refined craftsmanship and
exquisite designs. In the late Warring States period, magnificent bronze
wares with robust decorations appeared in Chu.
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Zhu Ke Ding (food vessel) (left)
Late Warring
States (mid-4th century-221 BCE). Unearthed from the tomb of King of
Chu, Zhujiajiao, Shou County, Anhui province, 1933.
Ding (food vessel) with interlaced dragons and scale pattern
(right)
Late Spring and Autumn (the first half of 6th century-476 BCE).
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Bo You Fu Ling (wine vessel) (left)
Mid-Spring
and Autumn (the first half of 7th century-the first half of 6th century
BCE).
Square Hu (wine vessel) with inlays of geometric pattern
(center)
Late Warring States (mid-4th century-221 BCE).
Guanfon (water vessel) with geometric pattern
(right)
Early Warring States (475-mid-4th century BCE).
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He (wine vessel) with dragon-shaped spout and animal mask
pattern
Mid-Spring and Autumn (the first half of 7th century-the first
half of 6th century BCE).
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He (wine vessel) with dragon-shaped spout and animal mask
pattern (left)
Mid-Spring and Autumn (the first half of 7th century-the first
half of 6th century BCE).
He (wine vessel) of Fu Chai, King of Wu (right)
Late Spring and Autumn (the first half of 6th century-476 BCE).
Gift of Mr. Eric Hotung.
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States of Wu and Yue
During the Spring and Autumn to the
Warring States periods, the cultures of Wu and Yue had a dominant
influence upon the southern region along the middle and lower reaches of
the Yangtze River. Many bronzes of Wu and Yue cultures have been
unearthed in the present-day provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hunan,
Jiangxi, and southern Anhui. Most of them imitated the types, forms, and
motifs from the Central Plains while displaying strong regional styles.
The casting techniques for weapon were highly advanced. The large nao
bell had distinctive characteristics as well.
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Nao (percussion instrument) with stylized animal mask
pattern
Spring and Autumn (770-476 BCE).
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Jian (water vessel) of Fu Chai, King of Wu
Late
Spring and Autumn (the first half of 6th century-476 BCE). Reportedly
unearthed in Hui county, Henan province.
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Jian is a type of large water vessel. It first appeared in the
middle Spring and Autumn period and was popular in the late Spring and
Autumn and the Warring States period.
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Jian (sword) (left)
Jian (sword) was
for both slashing and thrusting. In the Central Plains region, it first
appeared during the early Western Zhou period and was popular during the
Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. Swords appeared
earlier in the grasslands region and were used for a longer period of
time.
Gaudiao (percussion instrument) (right)
Gaudiao
is a percussion instrument popular during the late Spring and Autumn and
the Warring States periods.
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Ba and Shu Cultures
Ba and Shu cultures originated in the
Sichuan Basin. The two cultures were extremely close. The Ba people
inhabited the eastern part of the Sichuan Basin and established the Ba
State after the Western Zhou dynasty. Many bronzes made by the Ba people
from the Warring States period have been discovered. Most of them are
weapons and tools. They were adorned with symbols such as fierce tigers,
predatory birds, and palm-shaped motifs. The tiger pattern was the most
popular.
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Steppe Culture
In the northern regions along the Great Wall,
inhabitants led a semi-pastoral or nomadic life. They adorned tools,
weapons, chariots, horse equipment, and clothing with various animal
motifs. The bronze culture was developed for the need of their labour,
economy, and ways of life, showcasing distinctive characteristics of the
steppe culture.
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Integration Stage
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Integration Stage
Qin till the Five Dynasties (221 BCE-960
CE).
«This period saw the decline and fusion of Chinese bronze art. During
the Qin and Han dynasties (221 BCE-220 CE), the ritual significance of
bronzes faded. Simple craftsmanship and plain aesthetics went popular.
Bronzes were more functional. During the Western Han (206 BCE-8 CE), the
wide use of iron tools made it easier to incise patterns on bronzes. It
became popular to decorate bronzes with incisions. Techniques such as
gold and silver inlays, gilding, and painted designs exuded immense
charm. At the same time, in the southwestern region, the bronzes of the
Dian culture reached their peak. During the Wei, Jin, Northern and
Southern dynasties (220-589), the process of cultural integration among
various ethnic groups accelerated. The traditional cultural values of
bronzes changed greatly. In the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907)
dynasties, frequent cultural exchanges between China and foreign regions
introduced exotic features into daily wares.»
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Rectangular Sheng (standard measure) commissioned by Shang
Yang
344 BCE, the 18th year of the reign of Duke Xiao of Qin, Warring
States.
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The Unified Dynasties
In the Qin and Han dynasties, bronzes
became dominant in daily housewares. Most of the inscriptions recorded
place names and weights. However, after the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220)
with an increased and greater fusion of ethnic groups in an
unprecedented manner, many daily-use bronze items were replaced by
ceramic wares. Bronzes as functional values were no longer important.
This trend continued till the Tang dynasty (618-907) and Five Dynasties
(907-979).
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Houlou is a vessel for serving liquids such as alcohol and
soup. It was widely used in the Western Han.
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Fish-shaped Hu (wine vessel) (left)
Western
Han (206 BCE-8 CE).
Gilt Square Hu (wine vessel) of Marquis Xincheng
(right)
Western Han (206 BCE-8 CE). Gift of Mr. Chu Chong Yee and Ms. Zee
Wen Chu.
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Decree establishing the capital city of Daliang
«The Yellow Emperor is the original ancestor, and the virtue [of the
dynasty] began with Yu. The Emperor founded a new capital, Daliang,
where the dragon gathered in the year of Wuchen; the year of Wuchen is
the point of origin.
The Mandate of Heaven is bestowed upon the people; it is received
according to the virtue of the Earth. The correct name is the true one.
By correcting the old and establishing the new, we seek longevity and
prosperity; we standardize weights and measures, and verify the actions
of those present. The dragon is in the year of Jisi, the year of
foundation; the first decree is issued to the world, to be forever
obeyed by all nations. May descendants enjoy this for countless ages.»
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Bronze Drums
The bronze drums were a musical instrument.
They were chiefly used for gatherings, entertainment, commanding
operations in war, on weddings and funerals. They also served as gifts,
rewards, or container to store valuables. Bronze drums were used by many
ethnic groups and were popular in regions including Yunnan, Guizhou,
Guangxi, and Guangdong provinces. These bronze drums feature a
ready-to-use design and come in various types. The decorations show a
simple and bold style with distinctive patterns, including boat, dancing
figures, sun, cloud and thunder, and three-dimensional frog.
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He (food vessel) with lozenge pattern (left)
Western Han (206 BCE-8 CE).
Shang Lin Ding (food vessel) (right)
23 BCE,
the second year of Yangshuo reign, Western Han.
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Goose-foot-shaped lamp of Empress (left)
36 BCE, the
third year of Jianzhao reign, Western Han.
Censer with coiled cloud pattern (right)
Tang
(618-907).
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Boshanlu (hill censer) (left)
Boshanlu,
or hill censer, was used for burning incense. It was popular in the Han
dynasty.
Ranlu (dining utensil) (right)
Ranlu is
a type of dining utensil primarily composed of a cup and a stove. The
sauce or condiments for meat would be placed in a cup and get heated on
the fire inside the stove. Cooked meat would be dipped in the sauce.
Ranlu was widely used in the Han dynasty.
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Zhen (weight)
Zhen is a type of weight. In the
Han dynasty and before, people sat on mats. Zhen would be put on
mats to prevent the sitting mats from folding up when one was standing
up or sitting down.
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Chunyu (percussion instrument)
Chunyu is a
type of percussion instrument. It first appeared in the Spring and
Autumn period and was popular through the Warring States period till the
Eastern Han dynasty.
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Chunyu (percussion instrument)
Chunyu (percussion
instrument) with tiger-shaped knob and design of fish and boat
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Cowrie container with eight yaks
Western Han (206 BCE-8 CE).
Unearthed in Mount Shizhaishan, Jinning, Yunnan province, 1956.
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Pillow with five yaks
Western Han (206 BCE-8 CE). Unearthed
in Mount Lijiashan, Jiangchuan, Yunnan province, 1972.
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Dian Culture
Dian was one of the major ethnic clans living
in the southwestern region during the Warring States period, Qin and Han
dynasties. Their sophisticated bronze culture encompasses a wide variety
of bronze wares, including the bronze containers for cowrie coins,
ornaments with scene of animal combat, as well as various utensils and
agricultural tools. Dian craftsmen demonstrated a very high level of
mastery of techniques such as gilding, inlaying, and intricate
engraving.
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Kneeling female figurine
Western Han (206 BCE-8 CE).
Unearthed in Mount Shizhaishan, Jinning, Yunnan province, 1956.
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Xu (food vessel) of Confucius School of Kunshan County
1484, the 20th year of Chenghua reign, Ming.
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Ritual Bronzes in Sanlitu Style
In the early Northern Song
dynasty, Nie Chongyi, a Confucian scholar, compiled
Sanlitu Jizhu (Annotation of Illustrations to the Ritual
Classics) based on the six previous versions of
Sanlitu (Illustrations to the Ritual Classics) texts from the Han
to the Five Dynasties. This compilation provided templates for making
ritual objects and interpreted archaic bronzes discussed by the
Confucian classics. This practice had a profound influence on folk
ritual objects. However, the objects produced in this manner were quite
different from the bronzes of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties.
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Ritual Bronzes in Bogutu Style
Xuanhe Bogutu
(Illustrated Catalogue of Antique Bronzes from the Xuanhe Hall) compiled
under the commission of Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty is a
paradigm of ritual objects based on findings of unearthed artifacts. It
provides reference for casting the Dasheng ritual musical instruments.
In the Southern Song dynasty,
Shaoxi Zhouxian Shidianyi Tu (Illustrated Handbook for
Worshipping Confucius in the Provinces, complied in the Shaoxi era)
authored by Zhu Xi continued the practice to make vessels according to
antiquities. This book exerted a profound influence on official
ceremonial wares.
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Elephant-shaped Zun (wine vessel)
1837, the 17th year
of Daoguang reign, Qing.
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Dasheng Nanlü Zhong (percussion instrument)
Zhenghe
reign (1111-1117), Northern Song.
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Archaism Stage
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Archaism Stage
Northern Song till Middle Qing Dynasty
(960-1840).
«During the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127), the ruling class, facing
political reforms, endeavoured to reshape rite system and establish a
new hierarchy of rites and laws. As more bronzes from the Xia, Shang,
and Zhou dynasties had been unearthed, a nostalgic sentiment grew in the
imperial court and among literati, longing for the culture in the three
ancient dynasties. After Emperor Huizong established rules of rites and
music, new ritual significance was attached to the bronze art. In the
Yuan (1271-1368), Ming (1368-1644), and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, as
the ruling class prized Neo-Confucianism proposed by Zhu Xi (1130-1200),
ritual vessels cast for Confucius schools and ancestral temples followed
the styles of those from the Northern Song dynasty. Such practice of
ritual bronzes also impacted the entire East Asia.»
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Ding (food vessel) of Songjiang Prefecture (left)
Yuan (1271-1368).
Ding (food vessel) of Pogong Administration (center)
1751, the 16th year of Qianlong reign, Qing.
Ding (food vessel) of Confucius School of Changshu County
(right)
1508, the third year of Zhengde reign. Ming.
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Fu (food vessel) of Confucius School of Huzhou Prefecture (center left)
1335, the third year of Yuan Yuangai.
Xu (food vessel) with wave pattern (center right)
Yuan (1271-1368).
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Bian (food vessel) of Confucius Temple of Changzhou County
(center)
1542, the 21st year of Jiajing reign, Ming.
Dou (food vessel) of Songjiang Prefecture (right)
1359, the 19th year of Zhizheng reign, Yuan.
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Gilt Yize Zhong (percussion instrument) with dragon pattern
(center)
1715, the 54th year of Kangxi reign, Qing.
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Zhonglü Zhong (percussion instrument) of Confucius School of
Hangzhou Prefecture (center)
1305, the ninth year of Dade reign, Yuan.
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Leaving the Bronze Gallery
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See Also
Source
Location
Shanghai Museum - Sculpture Gallery
Shanghai Museum - Ceramics Gallery
Shanghai Museum - Jade Gallery